Hydropower Development

Outline of the contents:

1. Hydroelectric Power Plants
 Introduction of hydropower
 The Advantage of Hydropower
 World Hydropower use, Ethiopia Hydropower Potential
 Hydropower layout
 Hydropower Classification
2. Conveyance Structure
 Power Intake
 Canal Intakes Fore bay
 Tunnel Intakes Penstocks
 Surge Tanks
 Water Hammer
 Tailrace
3. Hydraulic Machines of Hydropower
 Types of Turbines
 Selection of Hydropower Turbines

4. Power House
 Layout of power house
 Types of Power House

5. Electromechanical Equipment
 HYDROELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT
 Introduction
 Hydropower is the energy extracted from the natural potential
of usable water resources.
 It is the capture of the energy of moving water for some
useful purpose.
 The energy of moving water has been exploited for centuries;
in Imperial Rome, water powered mills produced flour from
grain, and in China and the rest of the Far East, hydraulically
operated "pot wheel" pumps raised water into irrigation
canals.
 In the 1830s, at the peak of the canal-building era,
hydropower was used to transport barge traffic up and down
steep hills using inclined plane railroads.
 Any water resource program of which a hydropower
scheme may form part has environmental and social
impacts, which must be taken into consideration at
the initial planning stage.
 Also, legal and political implications must be
carefully considered.
 The latest technological advancements in
hydroelectric power generation permit the selection
of proper designs incorporating environmental and
social requirements.
Hydro Electric Power Plant
 Ethiopia has substantial hydropower potential from
which less than 2% has been utilize

River basin Estimated potential GWH/y

Abay 78,880
Awash 4,500
Baro Akobo 18,900
Genale Dawa 9,300
Tekez Angereb 6,000
Wabe Shebell 5,400
Omo Gibe 35,000
Rift valley Lakes 800

TOTAL 158,780
Existing Hydropower sites in Ethiopia
Plant Name
HP utilized (MW)

Koka 43.20

Awash II 32.00

Awash III 32.00

Finchaa 134.00
M.Wakena 153.00
Tis Abbay I 11.40

Tis Abbay II 73.00

Gilgel Gibe I 184.00
Total 662.6
Name of sites Ins.capacity MW Firm energy GWH/Y Status
Gilgel Gibe II 450 - Under construction
Gilgel Gibe III 1,900 364 -On bid
Gojeb 153 - Under construction
Omo 1,780 981 Under construction
Tekez 300 - Pre-feasibility
Awash IV 34 - Pre-feasibility
Neshe 40 780 Pre-feasibility
Aleltu 400 2,376 Pre-feasibility
Halele 374 1,100 Pre-feasibility
Upper belles 195 2,526 Pre-feasibility
Chemoga yeda I 118 - plan
Chemoga yeda II 90 361 plan
Guder 300 857+776 plan
Geba I&II 154+100 647+2,094 Plan
Baro I&II 194+475 567+1,215 Plan
Genale I&ii 174+164 - Plan
Kalub gas 200 - Plan
Dilboye(cool) 50 - Plan
Tendaho(Geothermal) 3 9,308 Pland
Karadobi 1,600 - Pre feasibility
Mendeya 2000 - identified
 Current and potential Sources of Energy from
Ethiopian Context
 Most of the domestic energy needs in Ethiopia are met from
renewable bio-fuels.
 In 1994, the total amount of energy consumed in the country
was 698.84 Terra Joules, out of which 95.1 percent was
covered by bio-fuels.
 The share of energy generated from petroleum and electricity
was only 4.3 percent and 0.60 percent respectively.
 The total annual hydropower potential of Ethiopia is estimated
at about 650 TW
 The deposits of natural gas and geothermal resources in
Ethiopia are estimated in the order of 30-50 billion m3 and 700
MW respectively
 coal and oil shale
 Alternative renewable energy resources: Solar-about 2.3 TWH
and Wind-4.8 million terra calories
 Biomass potential: about 14 million terra calories, out of which
one million terra calorie of energy can be produced annually.
Out of this, the share of forest products, animal dung and crop
residue is 79 percent, 13 percent and 8 percent respectively.
 Energy resources utilization
 About 77% of energy needs of the country is met from fuel
wood
 Animal dung, crop residues, liquid petroleum gas (LPG),
coal, petroleum and oil cover 7.7 percent, 8.7 percent, 0.06
percent, 1.55 percent, and 4.8 percent of the energy
requirements of the country, respectively.
 This shows that 95 percent of the energy consumed in the
country originates from BIOMASS energy sources.
 Hydropower – 1%
 Hydropower status in the World
 Worldwide, only 15.2% of the technically possible hydroelectric
energy was developed by 1990. The following table gives
hydroelectric generation in 1990 in TWh/year

Continent Technical Generated in (2) as % of (1)

Potential (1) 1990 (2)

Africa 1344 50 3.7

Asia 4212 387 9.2
Australia/Oceania 203 38 18.7
Europe 836 483 57.8
North America 969 573 59.1
Latin America 3486 380 10.9
USSR 2950 223 7.6
World 14000 2134 15.2
 Table Hydropower Potential in GWh of Ethiopia by Basin and
Generation Type
Basin Generation Type
With flow Small slope River plain Total
Regulation plants plants
Awash 16,770 1,574 4,010 22,354
Tekezze 23,150 - 12,720 35,870
Blue Nile 221,930 8,197 51,017 281,144

Baro 58,700 2,553 18,050 79,303

Chamo 73,850 2,961 27,430 104,241

Bilate, segen and 47,050 1,910 - 48,960

Dawa
Genale 31,500 2,641 11,360 45,501
Gistro 4,400 133 - 4,533
Wabi Shebelle 14,500 1,490 8,780 24,770
Total 491,850 21,459 133,367 646,676
 Merits and Demerits of Hydropower
 Hydropower has the following advantages over
other sources:
 Hydropower has a 'continuous' source of energy, while
thermal power has a depletable fossil fuel source.
Besides hydropower doesn't consume the water.
 Running cost of hydropower plant is very low compared to
thermal and nuclear plant.
 Hydropower plants can be brought in to operation in few
minutes while thermal & nuclear power plants lack this
capability. Thus hydropower plants are particularly useful
in taking up short period peak loads in a power grid
system.
 Efficiency of hydropower system is very high (85-95%),
while thermal power plants have low efficiency, as low as
40%.
 Hydropower development also provides secondary benefit
such as recreation, fishing, flood control etc, where
storage is contemplated.
• Some of the disadvantages of
hydropower development are:
 It is capital intensive & therefore rate of return is
low.
 The development period is long.
 This period is low for thermal power plants.
 Hydropower is dependent on natural flow of
streams.
 Since this is very variable the dependable or firm
power is considerably low compared to total
capacity.
 Layout of hydropower developments
 Various possibilities exist for the general layout of
hydro scheme.
 The layout of hydropower scheme should be done in
order to have optimum layout and which also gives
minimum cost for implementation, maintenance and
operation.
 A decision must be made with regards to the relative
lengths of the penstock and channel/tunnel, and how
to route them.
The components of hydro scheme

Powerhouse

Anchor

Penstock

Penstock
Support
System Layout

Figure : Channel and penstock options

Hydraulics of Hydropower
• Energy-Work Approach:
Kinetic Theory
Components of a hydropower project
Components of a hydropower project
Hydrological Analysis for hydropower
Development
 Hydrological studies will provide data on the flow of water, one of
the main parameters used in hydropower planning.
 Precipitation varies widely between geographical locations, from
season to season and from year to year.
 All planning in hydrology terms is predicted on the assumption
that the past history of water occurrence will be repeated in
future.
 In other words, plans for control and use of water are based on
the assumption that the precipitation and stream flow
conditions which have been observed in the past can be
expected to occur, within reasonable limits of similarity, in the
future, except if stream flows are modified by acts of Man.
 The generation of hydropower does not imply consumption of
water except as a result of incidental evaporation, especially from
reservoirs.
 Hydrological data
 historical series of daily or monthly flows
 Rainfall data
 historical series of daily, monthly or annual total of
rainfall
 Basic hydrological studies are required mainly to
determine water discharge and hydraulic head.
 Flow duration studies
A useful way of treating the time variability of water

discharge data in hydropower studies is by utilizing
flow duration curves.
 A flow duration curve is a plot of flow versus the percent
of time a particular flow can be expected to be
exceeded.
 A flow duration curve merely reorders the flows in order
of magnitude instead of the time ordering of flows
versus time plot.
 Methods of computing:
 rank-ordered technique
 class-interval technique
• Developed flow duration curve
 • Estimation of hydropower potentials of a River/Site
 In processing regulated and unregulated flow data, it is
important to recognize that in the power equation, flow is the
primary limiting factor.
 When a Run-Off-River type of power study is done and a
flow duration analysis is used, the capacity or size of the
hydropower units determines the maximum amount of water
that will go through the unit or units.
 This is dictated by the nominal runner diameter and the
accompanying outlet area and draft tube.
100
Q (m3/s)

10 Runner Discharge Capacity point

1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Exceedence percentage

Figure : Flow duration curve showing discharge capacity value

 100

Turbine power output

Turbine Capacity Point

10

1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of tim e pow e r is e qua l or ex ce e de d

Figure : Power duration curve

 • Estimation of Water Pressure or ‘Head’
 Measurement of gross head:
 The gross head is the vertical distance that the water falls through
in generating power, i.e. between the upper and lower water
surface levels.
 Prepared contour maps
 Surveyor’s level and staff
 Digital theologies,

 Electronic digital levels and electronic total stations

 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Estimation of net head:
 Having established the gross head available it is necessary to allow
for the losses arising from trash racks, pipe friction, bends and
valves.
 The potential or theoretical power in any river stretch with a
Pp    Q  H
difference in elevation H is computed from:

 If the river course is divided in to a number of n stretches, the total

power can be described by: n
P    (Q  H )
1
 Potential power resources can be characterized by values
according to the discharge taken as a basis of computation.
The conventional discharges are Q100, Q95, Q50, Qm.
 Thus we have,
 Minimum potential power designated Pp100, computed
from the minimum flow that is available for 100% of the
time (365 days or 8760 hrs.)
 Small potential power computed from the flow available
for 95% of the time. This represented by Pp 95
 Median potential power is computed from the flow
available for 50% of time. This is represented by Pp 50.
 Mean potential power is computed from the average of
mean yearly flows for a period of 10 to 30 years.
 This is designated as Ppm and is also known as gross
power potential.
 Technically Available Power
 Evaluation of technically available power from the available
power is significance.
 According to Mossony the losses subtracted from the Pp
values represents an upper limit of utilization.
 Losses = Conveyance loss + plant losses ( entrance, rack,
generator, turbine)
According to F.I. Nestruck,
 Conveyance efficiency = 70 %
 Overall plant efficiency = 80 %
 Total overall efficiency (multiplying factor) = 0.56 to be used with
average potential power Pp50.
 Therefore, technically available power Pa = 0.56*Pp50.
 The multiplying factor depends up on the type of
development. i.e. run-of-river plant, high head plant, etc.
 Pp= .Q.H (KW) = 9.81 Q.H (KW)
 Since 1 hp = 736 Watts
 Pp= 13.33 Q.H (hp)
 The hydraulic power P is given by
 P = η. .Q.H = 9.81 η.Q.H (KW)
 Where η - is the total efficiency
 Waterpower is also characterized by annual values of potential
energy in a river i.e. by quantities of work expressed in Kilowatt hours
& named as E95, E50, Em, etc.
 The maximum potential energy of a river section is thus:
 Emax = 8760*Pm (KWh)
 The upper value of net power capable of being developed technically
is computed from the potential waterpower by introducing reduction
factors to account for losses in conveyance & in energy conversion.
 The EEPCo puts the factor to be about 0.75 to 0.80.
 Thus, Pm net = (7.5 to 8.0) Qm.H (KW) for  = 10
 Where Qm is arithmetic mean discharge.
 Therefore, Em net = 8760 Pm net (KWh)
• Residual, reserved or compensation flow

Figure : Residual, reserved or compensation flow:

 Firm and Secondary Power/ Electrical Load
on Hydro-turbines
 The power demand is defined as the total load, which
consumers choose, at any instant of time, to connect to the
supplying power system.
Peak Load

Load
(MW)
Average Load

Base Load

0 6 12 18

Time

Typical Load curve

 NOTE: Maximum demand determines the size of the plant
and its cost.
 Highest instantaneous value of demand is, strictly speaking,
the peak load or peak demand.
 Generally, however, peak load is defined as that carried at
intensity greater than 4/3 times the average load intensity.
 Base Load is the total load continuously exceeded where as
the average load is the area under the curve divided by the
time.
 Load factor is the ratio of average load to the peak load and
is expressed as a daily, weakly, monthly or yearly value.
 The area under a load curve is energy (KWh) and it can be
plotted to obtain energy consumption curve.
 Thus the load factor can also be defined as:
Average load
Load Factor 
Peak load
 NOTE: Maximum load determines plant capacity
 Load factor - gives an idea of degree of utilization of capacity.
Thus an annual load factor of say 0.4 indicates that the
machines are producing only 40% of their yearly maximum
production capacity.
 Capacity factor: also called plant use factor or plant factor
Average outputof plant for a givenperiod
Capacity Factor 
Full plant capacity
Energy actually produced

Energy that a plantis capable of producingat fullcapacity

 For instance, if a plant with capacity of 100 MW produces

6,000,000 KWh operating for 100 hrs, its capacity factor will be:

6000000
C.F .   0.6 or 60 %
100000 *100
 NOTE: The capacity factor for hydroelectric plant is generally
b/n 0.25 & 0.75.
 Therefore, if the peak load = plant capacity, then capacity factor
= load factor. If the plant is not used to its full capacity, then
load factor ≠ capacity factor.
 Thus in the above example, if the maximum load was 75 MW
instead of 100 MW then
•Firm and Secondary Power
 The term “firm” is given to supply which can be guarantied at
all times or a large percentage of the time (e.g. 90% of the
time).
 This type of supply is distinguished from the supply governed
by the availability of water, which is often termed
“secondary”. Supply available as a result of seasonal excess
of water or abnormal runoffs is termed “surplus” as the
alternative to generation is letting the water run off (spilling).
 Firm Power: Also called primary power is the power
which always ensured to a consumer at any hour of the
day and is thus completely dependable power.
 Such a power corresponds to the minimum stream flow
and is available for all times.
 Secondary Power

Primary Power Firm Power

( for run-off river plant)

0% 100%

Firm power can be increased by use of poundage (storage).

Flow Regulation
Increased firm power

Firm Power
(Without storage)

0% 100%
 Base Load - Peak Load
 Power is needed for a variety of purposes, such as domestic,
commercial, industrial, municipal, agricultural, public transport
etc.
 The energy demand (local, regional, trans-regional) is subject
to considerable temporal fluctuations.
 These variations could be from hour to hour within a day, from
day to day within a week/month, from month to month within a
year, etc.

Load
(MW)
Day-time Night-time

6 12 18 24 6
Time (hrs)
Typical Daily Load Curve
 At certain times the demand may reach the highest value, known as
the peak-load. This maximum demand usually determines the size of
a plant. Generally, the peak-load is defined as that part of the load
carried at intensity greater than 4/3 times the mean load intensity.
 To cover the fluctuating energy demand, the following types of power
plants are interconnected to each others and work together:
 Base load power stations (coal, oil, nuclear and run-of-river scheme
power stations);
 Average load power stations (temporary, gas and reservoir power
stations);
 Peak load power stations (pumped storage and peak load hydro
power stations).
 Base load power stations having high utilization times, they produce
electric energy on a very economical basis.
 The energy prime costs of peak load power stations are higher due to
shorter utilization times; their emphasis lies on instant availability.
These differences affect considerably the price of base load and peak
load power.
 Hydropower

Load
(MW)

Nuclear

Thermal

Time (months)

Figure 3.9: Base load and Peak load stations

 CLASSIFICATION AND BASIS
 Hydropower plants could be classified on the basis of
 The hydraulic features of the plant

 Operating features of the plant

 On plant Capacity

 On operating head

 On Construction Features

 Location & topographical features

 Presence or absence of storage

 The range of operating heads

 A complete understanding of the type requires information

under all such categories.
 All the above classification basis are not mutually exclusive.
 Classification based on hydraulic features
 Conventional Hydro-plants
 Use normally available hydraulic energy of the flow of the
river.
 Run-of river plant, diversion plant, storage plant

 Pumped storage plants

 Use the concept of recycling the same water.
 Normally used with areas with a shortage of water

 It generates energy for peak load, and at off-peak periods

water is pumped back for future use.
 A pumped storage plant is an economical addition to a
system which increases the load factor of other systems and
also provides additional capacity to meet the peak load.
 Unconventional Hydro-plants
 Tidal power plant

 Wave power plant

 Depression power plant
 Classification based on actual operation in
meeting the demand:
 isolated plant - operating independently
 interconnected in to grids
 In a grid system, a power station may be
distinguished as a base load plant or peak
load plant.
 Hydropower plants are best suited as peak
load plants, because
 hydropower plants can start relatively quickly and
can thus accept load quickly.
 Classification based on plant capacity
 Classification based on plant capacity changes with time
and according to standards and codes of a country.
 According to Mossonyi
 Midget plant up to 10 KW

 Low capacity < 1000KW

 Medium capacity < 10,000KW

 High capacity > 10,000KW

 According to Present day classification (literatures)

 Micro hydropower < 5 MW

 Medium plant 5 to 100 MW

 High Capacity 100 to 1,000 MW

 Super plant above 1,000 MW

Ethiopia’s Hydropower?
 Classification based on operating head
 The most popular & convenient classification is
the one based on head on turbine.
 On this basis:
 Low head plants < 15m

 Medium head plants 15-50m

 High head plants 50-250m

 Very high head plants > 250m

  Classification based on constructional features
(layouts)
 Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
 Valley dam plants (Medium to high head plants)
 Diversion Canal Plants
 High head plants
 Pumped storage plants

a) Block power plant b) Twin block plant c)Island plant d) pier head plant e) Submersible
plant
Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
 Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
 The normal flow of the river is not distributed
 There is no significant storage
 A weir or barrage is built across a river & the low head created is
used to generate power. It also acts as a control spilling device.
 The power house is normally in the main course of the river

 Preferred in perennial rivers with moderate to high discharge, flat

slope, little sediment and stable reach of a river.
 Water enters the power house through an intake structure
incorporating some or all of the following.
 Entrance flume separated by piers and walls for each machine
unit.
 Turbine chamber: scroll case with turbine

 Concrete or steel draft tube

 Power house building
 Additional structures:
 deflector or skimmer walls, fore bay, service bridge
 river training walls
 sediment trap and flushing sluices, where necessary
 Valley dam plants (medium to high head plants)
 The dominant feature is the dam which creates the required
storage ( to balance seasonal fluctuation) and necessary
head for the power house.
 Power house is located at the toe of the dam

 Water flows through the penstock embedded in the dam &

enters the power house.
 Sometimes the power house is not immediately at the toe of
the dam but at some distance ( eg. the Koka power plant).
This arrangement is more expensive (due to longer
conveyance) and is used only when it offers advantages
such as extra head due to advantageous topographical
conditions.
 Important components of a valley dam plant
 the dam with its appurtenance structures like spillway, energy
dissipation arrangements etc.
 the intake with racks, stop logs, gates & ancillaries
 the penstock conveying water to the turbine with inlet valve &
anchorage.
 the main power house with its components.
Valley Dam Plant Arrangement
 Diversion canal plant
 The distinguishing feature is the presence of power canal that
diverts the water from the main stream channel.
 The power house is provided at suitable location along the
stretch of the canal
 The water often flowing through the turbine is brought back to
the old stream.
 Diversion canal plants are generally low head or medium head
plants.
 They don't have storage.
 Poundage requirement is met through a pool called forebay
located just u/s of the power house.
 Ways of developing required head
 The flatter slopes of power canal and the absence of
meander, by reducing length, helps in providing head.
 If the river has a natural fall, diverting the water from u/s side
of the fall & locating the power house at the d/s side of the
fall provide the required head.
Diversion Canal Plant Arrangement
  In inter-basin diversion, water may be
diverted from a higher level river to a
lower river through a diversion canal to
the power house located at the lower
river.
 Main structures of the diversion canal plant:
 Diversion weir with its appurtenant
structures.
 Diversion canal intake

 Bridges and culverts of the canal.

 Fore bay & its appurtenant structures.

 High head diversion plants
 High head is developed by:
 diverting the river water through a systems of canals
and tunnels to a downstream point of the same river.
 Diverting the water through canals and tunnels to a
point on another river which is at much lower level.
 There may be two situation concerning storage situation
 A diversion weir to create pondage ( and no storage).
Here like run-off-plant the power production is
governed by the natural flow in the river.
 Storage may be provided on the main river at the point
of diversion.
 This second situation is advantageous since the
fluctuation in reservoir level does not materially affect
the head and the power output can be adjusted by the
controlled flow release from the reservoir. Eg. Fincha
& Melka Wakana power plant.
High Head Diversion plant
 Main Components of high head diversion
plants:
 Storage or diversion weir with
appurtenant structures
 The canal/tunnel

 The head race either open cut or

tunnel.
 Fore bay/surge tank

 Penstock

 Power house

 The tail race

Diversion Possibilities
 Pumped Storage Plant
 Pumped storage plant is suitable where:
 the natural annual run-off is insufficient to justify a conventional
hydroelectric installation
 it is possible to have reservoir at head & tail water locations.
 This kind of plant generates energy for peak load, & at off peak
period water is pumped back for future use. During off peak
periods excess power available from some other plants in the
system is used in pumping back water from the lower reservoir
 Various arrangements are possible for higher and lower
reservoirs:
 Both reservoirs in a single river
 Two reservoirs on two separate rivers close to each other and
flowing at different elevations
 Higher reservoir an artificially constructed pool and the lower
reservoir on natural river
 The lower reservoir in a natural lake while the higher is artificial
 Another way of classifying is as pure pumped storage scheme
and mixed plant scheme (total generation>pumping and higher
reservoir on a natural system).
Pumped Storage Plant arrangement
 Storage and Poundage
 Storage is provide to balance seasonal fluctuation by
building reservoir dams. Pondage is provided through
balancing reservoir or forebay for short term fluctuations
(daily or hourly)
 Reservoir (storage) capacity
 Reservoir capacity is determined by means of mass curve
procedure of computing the necessary capacity
corresponding to a given inflow and demand pattern.
Reservoir capacity has to be adjusted to account for the
dead storage, evaporation losses and carry over storage.
 Mass Curve

700

600

500
Accumulated Volume

Storage Required
400

300

200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time
Storage Components Storage (1)
Dam (2)
Appurtenant Structure: Intake
and Spillage Structures:
Spillage Structure:
Spillway (5)
Intake: Service Intake
(3) and Bottom Outlet (4)
Surveillance Structure (in
Dam, in Foundation as well
as Valley Sides)
Diversion (6)
Service Road (7)
 Plant Capacity Determination
Basic procedures
Limits of use of turbine types
Determination of number of units
Selection of most economical units
 Minimum capacity/installation is determined by the dependable flow

100
Q (m3/s)

10

Minimum dependable flow

1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Exceedence percentage
•Determination of number of units
 It is most cost effective to have a minimum number of
units at a given installation
 However, multiple units may be necessary to make the
most efficient use of water where flow variation is high
 Factors such as space limitations by geologic
characteristics of existing structure may dictate larger or
smaller units.
 Difficulty of transporting and installing larger units
 Larger units require construction in segments and field
fabrication with special care
 Field fabrication is costly and practical only for multiple
units where the cost of facilities can be spread over
many units.
 •Selection of Most economical installation/unit

 An economic analysis must be done in order to justify

the optimum installation
 When the curve of total cost of installation crosses the
total benefit gained the optimum installation can be
decided depending on the local situation
 • Economic Optimization
Total Inst. Cap. MW 30 36 41 47 53 59 65 71
Div. T. Cost M. Br. 32.54 32.54 32.54 32.54 32.54 32.54 32.54 32.54
Unlined T. Cost M. Br. 16.95 16.95 16.95 17.16 17.58 18 18.42 18.84
Unlined sh. cost M. Br. 5.13 5.36 5.59 5.82 6.04 6.27 6.5 6.73
PH Cost M. Br. 18.69 21.24 23.66 25.97 28.21 30.36 32.46 34.5
Turbine cost M. Br. 24.34 28.4 32.09 35 37.77 41.37 43.88 46.09
Misc.Eq. Cost M. Br. 4.43 5.15 5.8 6.39 6.92 7.39 7.8 8.15
Electr.M.E. cost M. Br. 44 49 52 55 59 62 65 68

Total Inv. Cost M. Br. 146.08 158.64 168.63 177.88 188.06 197.93 206.6 214.85

Cap.R. (An.Fac.) % 8.39% 8.39% 8.39% 8.39% 8.39% 8.39% 8.39% 8.39%

Total Annual Cost M. Br. 12.25 13.30 14.14 14.92 15.77 16.60 17.33 18.02

Incr. Cost M. Br. 1.05 0.84 0.78 0.85 0.83 0.73 0.69 -
Annual firm energy Mill. kWh 62.12 62.12 62.12 62.12 62.12 62.12 62.12 62.12

Annual sur. ene. Mill. kWh 77.02 88 99.39 106.63 114.92 122.16 127.34 130.44

Val. of firm ene. M. Br. 21.74 21.74 21.74 21.74 21.74 21.74 21.74 21.74
Va. of sur. Ene. M. Br. 16.17 18.48 20.87 22.39 24.13 25.65 26.74 27.39
Tot. ene. value M. Br. 37.92 40.22 42.61 44.13 45.88 47.40 48.48 49.13
Incr. Benef M.Br. 2.31 2.39 1.52 1.74 1.52 1.09 0.65 -
WATER Conveyance Structure
1.Intake Structure
2. Tunnel/canal
3. Surge tank/fore bay
4. Penstock
5. Power House
6. Draft Tube
7. Tail Race
 Intake Structures
Definition:
Intake structure is a structure to divert water into a conduit leading
to the power plant or water ways and provided as an integral
part or in isolation from the diversion, weir or dam.
 A water intake must be able to divert the required amount of
water into the power canal or into the penstock without
producing a negative impact on the local environment and with
the minimum possible head loss.
 The intake serves as a transition between a stream that can
vary from a trickle to a raging torrent, and a controlled flow of
water both in quality and quantity.
 Its design, based on geological, hydraulic, structural and
economic considerations, requires special care to avoid
unnecessary maintenance and operational problems that
cannot be easily remedied and would have to be tolerated for
the life of the project.
 A water intake designer should take three criteria into
consideration:
 Hydraulic and structural criteria common to all
kind of intakes
 Operational criteria, e.g. percentage of diverted
flow, trash handling, sediment exclusion, etc- that
vary from intake to intake
 Environmental criteria, fish diversion systems,
fish passes- characteristics of each project.
 Functions of Intakes
 To control flow of water in to the conveyance system,
 To provide smooth, easy and vortex or turbulence free
entry of water
 To prevent entry of coarse river born trash matter
 To exclude heavy sediment load of the river
General Classification of Intakes:


-The intake supplies water directly to the turbine via a

penstock (power intake or fore bay)
- The intake supplies water to other waterways, power canal,
flume, tunnel, etc- that usually end in a power intake
(conveyance intake)
- The scheme doesn't have any conventional intake, but make
use of other devices, like siphon intakes

Figure: Power intake or fore bay

Figure: Conveyance intake
• Conventional classification of Intakes

 Run - of - river intakes

 Canal intakes
 Dam intakes
 Tower intakes
 Shaft intakes
 Intakes of special type
 Run - of - river intakes
 The component parts are:

 bell mouth entrance guarded by R.C or steel grid

forming the trash rack structure.
 Control gate situated immediately downstream of the
bell mouth entry
 Upstream of the gate may be provided with stop-log
groves for provision of access to the gate for repair.
 special de-silting arrangement may be provided in silt
loaded rivers.
 Canal Intakes
 water is admitted in to the diversion canal.
 silt excluders or silt-traps are usually essential
components of such intakes.
 the inlet invert level of the intake is raised to form
a sill so as to prevent entry of rolling bed load.
 A skimmer wall ( a diaphragm which extends below
the water surface) abstracts the floating material from
entering in to the canal.
 Trash racks are also fitted at the entrance.

 Vertical lift gate with motorized operation are used to

control the flow.
Figure: Arrangement of canal intake
 Dam Intakes:
 for valley dam plants, the intake structure is provided usually
in the body of the dam.
 the penstocks are embodied in the dam.

 the main features of such an intake are

 a trash rack structure in front of the dam.

 a bell mouth inlet horizontal or inclined alignment

 a control gate installed either at or after the bell mouth.

Figure: Dam Intake
 Tower intakes:
 In multipurpose reservoirs built for
irrigation, drinking water abstraction,
flood regulation,
 Also used when there are wide
fluctuations in water level.
 Tower may be connected with main
dam through a bridge when the tower
is near the dam
 Flow through the pressure conduit is
controlled by vertical uplift gates.
 The structure should be strong
enough to withstand hydrodynamic,
earthquake, wind, etc.

Figure : Tower intake designed to

withdraw water at different levels
 Shaft Intakes (Morning glory):
 the water is abstracted through access shaft.
 This is a vertical shaft that carries water to the penstock
tunnel. It consists of the following.
 The entrance structure with trash rack and rounded inlet.

 The vertical shaft followed by an elbow and transition

connecting the shaft with the tunnel.
 The intake gate (cylindrical) and sometimes a stop-log
closure.

Figure: Shaft Intake

 The French or Drop intake:
 is essentially a canal built in the streambed, stretching across it
and covered by a trash rack with a slope greater than the
streambed slope.
 The trash rack bars are oriented in the direction of the stream
flow.
 Latter the Drop Intake is improved by placing the bars as
cantilevers to avoid the accumulation of small stones commonly
entrained by the water
 Essentially it consists of a weir with a downward sloping profiled
surface of stainless steel wire screen mesh on the downstream
side and a flow collection channel below the mesh as in the
drop intake.
The French or Drop intake

Figure: Drop Intake

Figure: Arrangement of trash rack bars in drop intakes
 Basic principles governing selection of diversion
site from streams:
 Movement of bedload, Spiral flow, Surface flow,bottom
flow
– Intakes from streams should be located, wherever possible
on the concave side of the bend.

A
Spiral flow

Ground/bottom flow

Surface flow Movement of bedload

A
Section A-A
Figure: Spiral flow
– The effectiveness of the intake in preventing sediment
entry increases with the sharpness of the bend.
– Intakes from straight reaches can be made favorable by
artificially forcing the water to follow a curved path.
• Typical Layouts of intakes
Weir

Bend

Canal
Gate

In a bend With de-silting canal

Without de-silting canal Curved lateral branch

 Figure: Bottom Guide vanes

Figure: Surface Guide Vanes

 Intake location
 The location of the intake depends on a number of factors, such as
submergence, geotechnical conditions, environmental
considerations, especially those related to fish life, sediment
exclusion and ice formation where necessary.
 The orientation of the intake entrance to the flow is a crucial factor in
minimizing debris accumulation on the trash rack, a source of
future maintenance problems and plant stoppages.
 The best position of the intake is with the screen at right angles to the
spillway so, that in flood seasons the flow entrains the debris over its
crest.
 The intake should not be located in an area of still water, far from
the spillway, because the eddy currents common in such waters will
entrain and accumulate trash at the entrance.
 If for any reason the intake entrance should be parallel to the
spillway, it is preferable to locate it close to the spillway so the
operator can push the trash away to be carried away by the spillway
flow.
 The water intake should be equipped with a
trash rack to minimize the amount of debris
and sediment carried by the incoming
water; a settling basin where the flow
velocity is reduced, to remove all particles
over 0.2 mm; a sluicing system to flush
the deposited silt, sand, gravel and pebbles
with a minimum of water loss; and a
spillway to divert the excess water.
 Mechanical Equipments
 One of the major functions of the intake is to
minimize the amount of debris and sediment carried
by the incoming water, so trash racks are placed at
the entrance to the intake to prevent the ingress of
floating debris and large stones.
 A trash rack is made up of one or more panels,
fabricated from a series of evenly spaced parallel
metal bars.
 If the watercourse, in the flood season, entrains
large debris, it is convenient to install, in front of the
ordinary grill, a special one, with removable and
widely spaced bars from 100 mm to 300 mm
between bars- to reduce the work of the
automatic/mechanical trash rack cleaning equipment
 Trash racks and Skimmers
 Debris carried in the incoming water can have
adverse impacts on a hydropower scheme in that:
 It can obstruct flow along the conveyance structures,
interrupting power generation or causing the water to
overflow and possibly undermine the structures.
 It can cause rapid deterioration of the penstock or
turbine or cause a catastrophic failure, such as rupture
of the penstock through a sudden blockage of flow
through the nozzle (in the case of impulse turbines) or
fracture of the runner blades (in the case of reaction
turbines).
 It is therefore essential that the quantity of debris which
enters the conveyance system of a hydropower scheme
be minimized.
 This can be achieved with the help of trash racks
and skimmers.
 Trash Racks:
 A trash rack intercepts the entire flow and removes any
large debris, whether it is floating, suspended, or swept
along the bottom.
 Frequently, it is located in the intake structure to prevent
debris from entering the water conveyance system.
 It can also be placed just before the inlet to the penstock
to remove smaller debris as well as other trashes which
may have entered the water conveyance system
downstream of the intake.
 A trash rack is made up of one or more panels, each
generally fabricated of a series of evenly spaced parallel
metal bars.
 The bars are parallel and evenly spaced because a rake
is commonly used to clear the debris off the rack.
 In this case, it is essential that the teeth of the rake mesh
into the parallel bars without binding so that the rake can
be pulled along the bars easily to scrape off accumulated
debris.
 Trash racks can be installed by sliding them into grooves in the
concrete walls of the intake, canal, or fore bay structure.
 They should be removable and not permanently set in concrete.
 The approach velocity of flow should be kept within such limits
that it will not cause damage to the rack structure.
 A design approach velocity of 0.5 m/s is usually used.
 If a trash rack is located immediately in front of the inlet to a
penstock and the penstock velocities are significantly higher
than 0.5 m/s, the trash rack can be built in a circular area to
increase the area of the trash rack and correspondingly
decreases velocity through it.
 Cleaning of the trash racks can be performed either manually
(for small schemes) using manual rake or mechanically (for
large schemes) using automatic cleaning machines. The trash
rack is usually placed vertical or near vertical (< 25o from the
vertical). Placing the trash racks in an inclined position makes
the cleaning easy apart from giving less resistance to flow.
 Skimmers:
 A skimmer wall is an obstruction placed at the water surface,
usually at an angle to the stream flow which skims floating
debris from the passing water. If the water level changes
markedly as, for example, at the intake of stream, the skimmer
can be a floating piece of timber secured at both ends. If
changes in water level are small, a fixed skimmer can be used.
 Because some debris usually passes under the skimmer, a
trash rack is still necessary. However, a skimmer reduces the
frequency with which the trash rack has to be cleaned.
 Skimmer walls are made, for the most part, of reinforced
concrete with a service bridge on top. They are designed
usually for a horizontal pressure of 1000 kg/m2 acting on the
submerged surface.
 Velocity through Trash Racks.doc
 Velocity in trash rack
 Air entrainment
 Settling basin
 Head Race (Power canal, canal design, lining,
water loss in canal)
 Tunnels
 Classification of Tunnels
 Alignment
 Design Aspects
 Lining
 Pressure tunnels
 Tunnel Design Features
 Flow Velocity
 Head Loss
 Optimum X-section
 Stress Analysis and Lining
 Tunneling Methods
 Conventional “Drill and Blast” Method:
 Use of Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM):
 Tunnel Supports
 Rock Bolting:
 Shotcreting:
 Grouting: