ECE 530 – Analysis Techniques for

Large-Scale Electrical Systems

Lecture 24: Numerical Integration;

Power System Equivalents

Cecilia Klauber (Guest Lecturer)

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
[email protected]
12/2/2015

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 Numerical Integration
• Power system application: transient stability
• Power systems are dynamic state-space systems,
represented by DAEs and ODEs
• Typically the power flow solution represents an
equilibrium point
• At some point a contingency occurs, perturbing the
state away from the steady-state equilibrium point
• Time domain simulation is used to determine whether
the system returns to the equilibrium point

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 Methods
• One-step methods
– Forward Euler’s Method
– Runge-Kutta Methods
• Multistep methods
– Adams-Bashforth Method
• Multi-Rate Methods
• All these methods have numerical stability concerns
depending on the stepsize
• Implicit Methods

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 Multistep Methods
• Euler's and Runge-Kutta methods are single step
approaches, in that they only use information at x(t) to
determine its value at the next time step
• Multistep methods take advantage of the fact that using
we have information about previous time steps x(t-Dt),
x(t-2Dt), etc
• These methods can be explicit or implicit [dependent on
x(t+Dt) values]; we'll just consider the explicit Adams-
Bashforth approach

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 Multistep Motivation
• In determining x(t+Dt) we could use a Taylor series
expansion about x(t)
Dt 2
x(t  Dt )  x(t )  Dt x(t )  x(t )  O(Dt 3 )
2
Dt 2  f (x(t ))  f (x(t  Dt )) 
x(t  Dt )  x(t )  Dt f (t )    O(Dt ) 
2  Dt 

x(t  Dt )  x(t )  Dt  f  x(t )   f  x(t  Dt )    O(Dt 3 )
3 1
2 2 

(note Euler's is just the first two terms on the right-hand

side)
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 Adams-Bashforth
• What we derived is the second-order Adams-Bashforth
approach. Higher-order methods are also possible, by
approximating subsequent derivatives. Here we also
present the second- and third-order Adams-Bashforth
Second Order
Dt
x(t  Dt )  x(t )   3f (x(t ))  f ( x(t  Dt ))   O(Dt 3 )
2
Third Order
Dt
x(t  Dt )  x(t )   23f (x(t ))  16f ( x(t  Dt ))  5f ( x(t  2Dt ))   O( Dt 4 )
12

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 Adams-Bashforth Versus
Runge-Kutta
• The key Adams-Bashforth advantage is the approach
only requires one function evaluation per time step
while the RK methods require multiple evaluations
• A key disadvantage is when discontinuities are
encountered, such as with limit violations;
• Another method needs to be used until there are
sufficient past solutions
• They also have difficulties if variable time steps are
used

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 Numerical Instability
• All explicit methods can suffer from numerical
instability if the time step is not correctly chosen for the
problem eigenvalues

Values are scaled by the

time step; the shape
for RK2 has similar
dimensions but is closer
to a square. Key point
is to make sure the time
step is small enough
relative to the eigenvalues

Image source: http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~frank011/Classes/numwisk/ch10.pdf

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 Stiff Differential Equations
• Stiff differential equations are ones that exhibit a wide-
range of time varying dynamics from “very fast” to
“very slow.”
• Stiffness is associated with solution efficiency: in order
to account for these fast dynamics we need to take quite
small time steps
x1  x2
x2  1000 x1  1001x2
 0 1 
x    x
 1000 1000 
x1 (t )  Aet  Be 1000t
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 Multi-Rate Methods
• Multi-rate methods can be used with sets of differential
equations in which different parts of the system have
different speeds
– Use small time steps for the fast parts of the system
– Use larger time steps for the slower parts of the system
• Subsystems need to be sufficiently decoupled
• A good power system reference: J. Chen and M. L.
Crow, "A Variable Partitioning Strategy for the
Multirate Method in Power Systems," IEEE Trans.
Power Systems, vol. 23, pp. 259-266, 2008

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 Multi-Rate Methods
• At each macro step the slow variables are integrated, at
each micro step the fast variables are integrated
• Macro variables can be interpolated during the micro
steps

Source: J. Chen and M. L. Crow, "A Variable Partitioning Strategy for the Multirate Method in Power
Systems," IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 23, pp. 259-266, 2008
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Multi-Rate Example: Transient Stability
• The power system transient stability problem is usually
solved with a time step of ¼ or ½ cycle
• Some subsystems can have much faster time constants
– When starting induction machines can exhibit very fast
(relative to the time step) transients
– Some types of exciters can have very fast time constants, in
which the dynamics only come into play during close by
faults

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 Implicit Methods
• Implicit solution methods have the advantage of being
numerically stable over the entire left half plane
• Only methods considered here are the is the Backward
Euler and Trapezoidal
Euler
x(t  Dt )  x(t )  Dt f (x(t ))
Backward Euler
x(t  Dt )  x(t )  Dt f (x(t )  Dt )
Trapezoidal
Dt
x(t  Dt )  x(t )   f (x(t ))  f (x(t )  Dt ) 
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 Implicit Methods
• The obvious difficulty associated with these methods is
x(t) appears on both sides of the equation
• Easiest to show the solution for the linear case:
x  f (x(t ))  Ax(t ))
Then using backward Euler
x(t  Dt )  x(t )  Dt A(x(t  Dt ))
I  Dt A  x(t  Dt )  x(t )
1
x(t  Dt )   I  Dt A  x(t )

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 Backward Euler Example
• Returning to the cart example
 0 1
x  x(t ))
 1 0 
Then using backward Euler with Dt  0.25
1
1  1 0.25
x(t  Dt )   I  Dt A  x(t )    x(t )
0.25 1 

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 Backward Euler Example
• Results with Dt = 0.25 and 0.05
time actual x1(t) with x1(t) with
x1(t) Dt=0.25 Dt=0.05
0 1 1 1
0.25 0.9689 0.9411 0.9629
0.50 0.8776 0.8304 0.8700
0.75 0.7317 0.6774 0.7185
1.00 0.5403 0.4935 0.5277
2.00 -0.416 -0.298 -0.3944
Note: Just because the method is numerically stable
doesn't mean it is doesn't have errors! RK2 is more
accurate than backward Euler for this case.
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 Trapezoidal Linear Case
• For the trapezoidal with a linear system we have
x  f (x(t ))  Ax(t ))
Dt
x(t  Dt )  x(t )   A(x(t ))  A(x(t  Dt )) 
2
I  Dt A  x(t  Dt )  I  Dt A  x(t )
 2   2 
1  Dt 
x(t  Dt )   I  Dt A  I  A  x(t )
 2 

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 Trapezoidal Example
• Results with Dt = 0.25, comparing between backward
Euler and trapezoidal
time actual Backward Trapezoidal
x1(t) Euler
0 1 1 1
0.25 0.9689 0.9411 0.9692
0.50 0.8776 0.8304 0.8788
0.75 0.7317 0.6774 0.7343
1.00 0.5403 0.4935 0.5446
2.00 -0.416 -0.298 -0.4067

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 Overview of Commercial Transient
Stability Algorithm
• Most commercial packages use an explicit approach,
such as a second order Runge-Kutta because of 1) the
large number of nonlinear models and 2) the number of
limit violations that are encountered
• Power flow solution provides the initial starting point
• Initial state variables are determined by back solving
from the power flow conditions
– Example: TGOV1 governor
initialization

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 Overview of Commercial Transient
Stability Algorithm
• For simplicity showing Euler's, which is not used
• While (t <= tend) Do Begin
– Any events? If so, apply event and solve algebraic
equations, g(x,y) = 0
– Solve differential equations: x  f (x, y )
– Solve algebraic equations, g(x,y) = 0
– Output results
– End while
• Many complications to consider, including events that
occur in the middle of a time step

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 Power System Equivalents
• For many power system applications it is not necessary
to study the entire interconnected network
– Usually we are only concerned with a portion of the network
– For real-time operations, real-time information is only
available for a portion of the network
• System is partitioned into study system, for which a
detailed model is desired, and an external system, for
which an equivalent model is used
– Boundary buses (within the study system) connect the two

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 Power System Equivalents
• For decades power system network models have been
equivalenced using the approach originally presented by
J.B. Ward in 1949 AIEE paper “Equivalent Circuits for
Power-Flow Studies”
– Paper’s single reference is to 1939 book by Gabriel
Kron, so this also known as Kron’s reduction
• Additional classical techniques are discussed in S.
Deckmann, A. Pizzolante, A. Monticelli, B. Stott, and
O. Alsac,“Studies on power system load flow
equivalencing,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol.
PAS-99, no. 6, pp. 2301–2310, Nov./Dec. 1980.
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 Ward Equivalents (Kron Reduction)
• Equivalent is performed by doing a reduction of the bus
admittance matrix
I e   Yee Yes   Ve 
I    Y Yss   Vs 
 s   se
I s  Y Y 1
se ee eI    Yss  Yse ee Yes  Vs
Y 1

• Done by doing a partial factorization of the Ybus

– Computationally efficient
– Yee matrix is never explicitly inverted!
• Similar to what is done when fills are added, with new
equivalent lines eventually joining the boundary buses
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 Ward Equivalents (Kron Reduction)
• Prior to equivalencing constant power injections are
converted to equivalent current injections, the system
equivalenced, then they are converted back to constant
power injections
• Tends to place large shunts at the boundary buses
• This equivalencing process has no impact on the non-
boundary study buses
• Various versions of the approach are used, primarily
differing on the handling of reactive power injections
• The equivalent embeds information about the operating
state when the equivalent was created
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 PowerWorld Example
• Ward type equivalents can be created in PowerWorld
by going into the Edit Mode and selecting Tools,
Equivalencing
– Use Select the Buses to determine buses in the equivalent
– Use Create the Equivalent to actually create the equivalent
– When making equivalents for large networks the boundary
buses tend to be joined by many high impedance lines; these
lines can be eliminated by setting the Max Per Unit for
Equivalent Line field to a relatively low value (say 2.0 per
unit)
– Loads and gens are converted to shunts, equivalenced, then
converted back
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 PowerWorld B7Flat_Eqv Example
• In this example the B7Flat_Eqv case is reduced,
eliminating buses 1, 3 and 4. The study system is then
2, 5, 6, 7, with buses 2 and 5 the boundary buses
0 MW 0 MW 0 MW 0 MW 0 MW
A A

1.04 pu MVA 1.04 pu MVA

Bus 1 Bus 3 Bus 4 1.04 pu For ease of

0 MW 0 MW 0 MW 0 MW 0 MW
AGC OFF
comparison
A A
0 MW
MVA

0 MW
MVA
MVA
A
Case Hourly Cost
3454 $/h
A
MVA AGC OFF system is
0 MW
0 MW
1.04 pu
0 MW
0 MW
A
MVA
0 MW 1.04 pu
modeled
Bus 2 Top Area Cost

0 MW
0 MW
2122 $/h
Bus 5

0 MW 0 MW
unloaded
A
A 0 MW AGC OFF
MVA
MVA 0 MW
0 MW 0 MW 0 MW
A

1.04 pu MVA 1.04 pu

Bus 6 0 MW 0 MW Bus 7
A
MVA
0 MW Left Area Cost Right Area Cost 0 MW
slack

0 Mvar 832 $/h 500 $/h 0 Mvar

0 MW AGC OFF -0 MW AGC OFF

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 PowerWorld B7Flat_Eqv Example
• Original Ybus
 20.83 16.67 4.17 0 0 0 0 
 16.67 52.78 5.56 5.56 8 .33 16 .67 0 
 
 4.17 5.56 43.1 33.3 0 0 0 
 
Ybus  j 0 5.56 33.3 43.1 4.17 0 0 
 0 8.33 0 4.17 29.17 0 16.67 
 
 0 16.67 0 0 0 25 8.33 
 0 25 
 0 0 0 16.67 8.33
 20.833 4.167 0 
Yee  j  4.167 43.056 33.333 
 0 33.333 43.056 

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 PowerWorld B7Flat_Eqv Example
16.667 5.556 5.556 
16.667 0 0 0  0 
Yes  j  5.556 0 0 
0 4 .167
0 Yse  j  
 0 0 0 
 5.556 4.167 0 0   
 0 0 0 

 52.778 8.333 16.667 0 

 8.333 29.167 0 16 .667  Note Yes=Yse'
Yss  j   if no phase
 16.667 0 25.0 8.333 
  shifters
 0 16 .667 8 .333 25 .0 
 28.128 11.463 16.667 0 
 11.463 28.130 
 ss se ee Yes   j  16.667
1 0 16 .667 
Y  Y Y
0 25.0 8.333 
 
 0 16.667 8 .333 25 .0 
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 PowerWorld B7Flat_Eqv Example
• Comparing original and equivalent
 52.778 8.333 16.667 0 
 8.333 29.167 0 16 . 667 
Yss  j  
 16.667 0 25.0 8.333 
 
 0 16 .667 8. 333 25 . 0 
 28.128 11.463 16.667 0 
 11.463 28.130 
 ss se ee Yes   j  16.667
1 0 16 . 667 
Y  Y Y
0 25.0 8.333 
 
 0 16.667 8.333 25 .0 
Only modification was a change in the impedance
between buses 2 and 5, modeled by adding an
equivalent line 29
 Contingency Analysis Application
of Equivalencing
• One common application of equivalencing is
contingency analysis
• Most contingencies have a rather limited affect
• Much smaller equivalents can be created for each
contingent case, giving rapid contingency screening
• Contingencies that appear to have violations in
contingency screening can be processed by more time
consuming but also more accurate methods
• W.F. Tinney, J.M. Bright, “Adaptive Reductions for
Power System Equivalents,” IEEE. Trans Power
Systems, May 1987, pp. 351-359
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 New Applications in Equivalencing
• Models in which the entire extent of the network is
retained, but the model size is greatly reduced
– Often used for economic studies
• Mixed ac/dc solutions, possibly with an equivalent as
well
– Internal portion is modeled with full ac power flow, more
distant parts of the network are retained but modeled with a
dc power flow, rest might be equivalenced
• Attribute preserving equivalents
– Retain characteristics other than just impedances, such as
PTDFs; also new research looking at preserving line limits

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