Support, Protection, and

Movement
Chapter 29
Integument

 The integument is the protective outer

covering of the body.
 Includes the skin and structures associated
with the skin such as hair, setae, scales,
feathers, and horns.
Invertebrate Integument

 Many invertebrates have a single-

layered epidermis covering the body.
 Others have added a secreted
noncellular cuticle over the epidermis.
 Additional protection
Invertebrate Integument

 Molluscs have a delicate epidermis.

 Protection is provided by the shell.
 Cephalopods have a more complex
epidermis with a cuticle, simple epidermis,
layer of connective tissue, & a layer of
iridocytes.
Invertebrate Integument
 Arthropods have a
complex integument that
provides protection and
skeletal support.
 Single layered epidermis
(hypodermis) which
secretes a complex
cuticle.
 Procuticle – layers of
chitin and protein.
 Epicuticle – moisture
proofing barrier.
Invertebrate Integument

 The arthropod cuticle may remain tough, but

flexible as in many small crustaceans and
insect larvae, or it may become hardened.
 Decapod crustaceans have a cuticle stiffened by
calcification (deposition of calcium carbonate in the
procuticle.
 In insects, hardening occurs by sclerotization
where protein molecules bond together producing
the insoluble protein sclerotin.
Vertebrate Integument

 Vertebrate
Integument includes:
 Epidermis – thin
outer stratified
epithelial layer,
derived from
ectoderm.
 Dermis – thick
inner layer, derived
from mesoderm.
Epidermis
 The epidermis gives rise to hair, feathers, claws, and
hooves.
 Epidermis is stratified squamous epithelium.
 Cells in the basal part undergo frequent mitosis.
 As cells are displaced upward, cytoplasm is replaced
by keratin.
Epidermis

 Keratin is a tough protein that is also

light and flexible.
 Reptile scales are composed of keratin.
 Birds have keratin in feathers, beaks,
and claws.
 Mammals use keratin in hair, hooves,
claws, and nails.
Dermis
 The dermis is a
dense connective
tissue layer
containing blood
vessels, collagenous
fibers, nerves,
pigment cells, fat
cells, and fibroblasts.
 Dermis serves to
support, nourish, and
cushion the
epidermis.
Dermis

 The dermis may contain bony structures

of dermal origin.
 Ostracoderms and placoderms had
heavy bony plates.
 Living sturgeons
Dermis

 Scales of fishes are

bony dermal
structures that
evolved from the
armor of Paleozoic
fishes.
Dermis

 In reptiles, dermal bone contributes to

the armor of crocodilians, the beaded
skin of some lizards, and portions of a
turtle’s shell.
 Dermal bone is found in the antlers of
mammals.
Dermis

 Claws, beaks, nails, and horns are composed

of a combination of epidermal (keratinized) and
dermal components.
Animal Coloration

 Coloration in animals may be bright as in

warning coloration, or subdued as in
cryptic coloration.
 Colors may be produced by pigments or
structurally.
Animal Coloration

 Structural colors are produced by the

physical structure of the surface tissue
which reflects certain light wavelengths
and eliminates others.
 Iridescent or metallic hues
 Blue
Animal Coloration

 The white of these

feathers is produced
by minute air filled
spaces that reflect
white light.
Animal Coloration
 Pigments are a varied group of large molecules that
reflect light rays producing a particular color.
 Most ectothermic invertebrates have chromatophores
with branching processes.
 Pigment granules can be dispersed or concentrated.
Animal Coloration

 In cephalopods, each chromatophore is a sac-

like cell filled with pigment granules and
surrounded by muscle cells.
 When the muscles contract, they spread the
granules into a pigmented sheet.
Animal Coloration

 Melanins produce black & brown, contained in

melanophores.
 Carotenoid pigments produce yellow and red
colors.
 Frequently contained in special pigment cells called
xanthophores.
 Iridophores are a type of chromatophore that
contain crystals of guanine instead of pigment.
 Silvery or metallic
Skeletal Systems

 Skeletons are supportive systems that

provide protection, support, and a place
for muscle attachment.
Hydrostatic Skeletons
 In the hydrostatic skeleton of an earthworm,
muscles in the body wall develop force by
contracting against incompressible coelomic
fluids.
 Alternate contractions of circular and
longitudinal muscles of the body wall enable a
worm to move forward.
Muscular Hydrostats
 Muscular hydrostats
work because they are
composed of
incompressible tissues.
 Complex movements
are a result of complex
arrangements of
muscles.
 Elephant’s trunk,
mammal & reptile
tongues, cephalopod
tentacles are examples.
Rigid Skeletons

 Rigid skeletons contain some kind of

rigid elements.
 Provide anchor points for pairs of opposing
muscles.
 Provides protection & support

 Exoskeleton – found in molluscs &

arthropods and some other invertebrates.
 Endoskeleton – found in echinoderms,
chordates, and some cnidarians.
Vertebrate Endoskeleton
 The vertebrate
endoskeleton is
composed of bone
and cartilage (types
of connective tissue).
 Bone provides
support, protection,
and serves as a
reservoir for calcium
and phosphorous.
Notochord and Cartilage

 The notochord is a supportive rod found in

protochordates and developing vertebrates.
 Derived from mesoderm.
 Except in jawless vertebrates, the notochord is
replaced by the backbone.
Notochord and Cartilage

 Jawless fishes and elasmobranchs have

cartilaginous skeletons – a derived
feature since their ancestors had bony
skeletons.
 Most vertebrates have bony skeletons,
with some cartilaginous parts.
Notochord and Cartilage
 Cartilage is a soft,
pliable tissue that
resists compression
and is variable in form.
 Hyaline cartilage has
a clear, glassy
appearance with
chondrocytes
surrounded by a
matrix.
 No blood vessels.
Notochord and Cartilage

 Cartilage is often found at articulating

surfaces of many bone joints, and as
supporting rings of the passageways in
the respiratory system.
Notochord and Cartilage

 Cartilage similar to hyaline cartilage is

found in many invertebrates.
 Radula of gastropods
 Lophophore of brachiopods
Bone

 Bone is highly vascular living tissue that

contains significant deposits of inorganic
calcium salts.
 Endochondral (replacement) bone
develops from another form of connective
tissue – usually cartilage.
 Intramembranous bone develops directly
from sheets of embryonic cells.
 Face, cranium, clavicle, dermal bone.
Bone

 Bone can vary in density.

 Spongy bone consists of open, interlacing
framework of bony tissue, oriented to give
strength.
 Compact bone is dense – the open
framework of spongy bone has been filled in
by additional calcium salts.
Bone
 Compact bone is
composed of a
calcified bone matrix
arranged in sets of
concentric rings -
osteons.
 Bones consist of
bundles of osteons
interconnected with
blood vessels and
nerves.
Bone

 Between the rings are lacunae (cavities)

filled with osteocytes (bone cells)
connected by tiny passageways that
distribute nutrients.
Bone – Dynamic Tissue

 Bone is a dynamic tissue.

 Osteoclasts are bone resorbing cells.
 Osteoblasts are bone building cells.

 Both processes occur together so that

new osteons are formed as old ones are
resorbed.
Bone – Dynamic Tissue

 Hormones (parathyroid hormone for

resorption and calcitonin for deposition)
are responsible for maintaining a
constant calcium level in the blood.
Vertebrate Skeleton

 Axial skeleton
includes the skull,
vertebral column,
ribs, and sternum.
 Appendicular
skeleton includes
the limbs and
pectoral and pelvic
girdles.
Vertebrate Skeleton

 Over time, the number of skull bones has

been reduced from as many as 180 in
some early fishes to 35 or fewer in
mammals.
Vertebrate Skeleton

 The vertebral column serves as the main

stiffening axis.
 In fishes it provides points for muscle
attachment, provides stiffness, and preserves
body shape during muscle contraction – much
like the notochord from which it is derived.
Vertebrate Skeleton

 Most vertebrates have paired

appendages.
 Pectoral and pelvic fins in fishes supported
by the pectoral and pelvic girdles.
 Tetrapods have two pairs of pentadactyl
limbs (although they may be highly modified
through bone loss or fusion).
 The pelvic girdle is generally firmly attached
to the axial skeleton, while the pectoral
girdle is more loosely attached.
Animal Movement

 Most animal movement depends on

contractile proteins which can change
their shape to relax or contract.
 These fibrils will contract when powered by
ATP.
 Actin and myosin form a contractile system
found in most animals.
 Cilia and flagella utilize different proteins.
Ameboid Movement
 Ameboid movement is
found in amebas, white
blood cells, and
embryonic cells.
 Movement using
pseudopods depends
on actin and myosin.
Ciliary and Flagellar Movement
 Cilia are found throughout
the animal kingdom
(except in nematodes, rare
in arthropods).
 Uniform in diameter (.2-.5
µm) and structure.
 Basal body similar to a
centriole – 9 triplets of
microtubules composed
of the protein tubulin.
 Cilium has 9 pairs
surrounding two individual
microtubules.
Ciliary and Flagellar Movement

 A flagellum is a
whiplike structure
longer than a cilium
and usually present
singly.
 Structure is the
same.
 Different beating
pattern.
Muscular Movement
 Muscle cells (fibers) can
only do work by
contraction.
 They can’t actively
lengthen.
 They are often arranged
in opposing pairs.
 Three types of muscle
tissue.
 Skeletal
 Smooth
 Cardiac
Skeletal Muscle

 Skeletal, (striated)
muscle appears to
be striped.
 Multinucleate fibers
 Attached to skeletal
elements.
 Voluntary
 Fast acting, but
fatigues quickly.
Smooth Muscle
 Smooth muscle lacks striations.
 Single nucleus
 Involuntary
 Slow acting, but can maintain prolonged contractions.
 Muscles of the stomach, intestines, uterus are
smooth muscle.
Cardiac Muscle

 Cardiac muscle, found only in the heart, is

striated and fast acting like skeletal muscle.
 Involuntary, with one nucleus per fiber like
smooth muscle.
 Fibers are joined by junctional complexes
called intercalated discs.
Muscles
 A skeletal muscle
consists of a bundle
of long fibers
running parallel to
the length of the
muscle.
 A muscle fiber is
itself a bundle of
smaller myofibrils
arranged
longitudinally.
Muscles
 The myofibrils are composed of two kinds of
filaments:
 Thin filaments, consisting of two strands of actin and
one strand of regulatory protein.
 Thick filaments, staggered arrays of myosin molecules.
 The functional unit of the myofibril is a sarcomere.
Muscles

 Actin and myosin are contractile

proteins.
Muscle Contraction
 Striated muscle contraction is explained by the sliding
filament hypothesis.
 Actin & myosin filaments become linked together by
cross bridges (myosin heads), which act as levers to
pull the filaments past each other.
 Z-lines pulled closer together, sarcomere shortens.
Muscle Contraction

 Muscles contract in response to nerve

stimulation.
 Skeletal muscles are innervated by
motor neurons whose cell bodies are in
the spinal cord.
Muscle Contraction

 One motor neuron has many terminal

branches that may innervate many
muscle fibers.
 A motor unit includes the motor neuron
and all the fibers it innervates.
The Neuromuscular Junction

 The place where a motor axon

terminates on a muscle fiber is called the
neuromuscular junction.
 The synaptic cleft is a small gap that
separates the nerve fiber & muscle fiber.
 Acetylcholine is stored in synaptic
vesicles in the neuron.
The Neuromuscular Junction

 When a nerve impulse arrives, acetylcholine

is released into the cleft starting a wave of
depolarization in the muscle fiber.
Excitation-Contraction Coupling

 In the resting state, muscle shortening

does not occur because thin tropomyosin
strands on the actin myofilaments lie in a
position that prevents the myosin heads
from attaching to actin.
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
 When the muscle is
stimulated, calcium
ions are released
that bind to troponin.
 This causes a
change in shape
that causes the
tropomyosin to
move out of the
way exposing
binding sites on the
actin molecule.
Energy for Contraction

 Energy for muscle contraction comes

from ATP.
 ATP is synthesized during aerobic
metabolism.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gJ309LfHQ3M
Energy for Contraction

 During prolonged exercise, blood flow

can’t supply oxygen fast enough for
aerobic metabolism to continue.
 Anaerobic glycolysis is not as efficient,
but still produces some ATP.
 An oxygen debt builds up because the
accumulated lactic acid must be oxidized.
Fast and Slow Fibers
 Skeletal muscles consist of different types of
fibers.
 Slow oxidative fibers (red muscles) specialized for
slow, sustained contractions.
 Maintaining posture
 Fast glycolytic fibers (white muscles) lack an
efficient blood supply and function anaerobically.
 Running muscles in cats.
 Fast oxidative fibers have an efficient blood
supply and function aerobically for fast, sustained
activities.
 Wing muscles in migratory birds.
Importance of Tendons

 When mammals walk, kinetic energy is stored

in the tendons.
 The tendon stretches, then recoils extending
the foot while the muscle is contracted,
propelling the leg forward.