Ray F. Evert • Susan E.

Eichhorn

Raven Biology of Plants

Eighth Edition

CHAPTER 3
The Plant Cell and the Cell Cycle
Lecture presentation by Dr. Mohammad Brake
Jerash University

© 2013 W. H. Freeman and Company

Powerhouse of the plant cell: The chloroplast is the site where
light energy is used to produce the organic molecules required by
the plant cell. In this image, the flattened and stacked
membranes of the grana can be seen inside the chloroplast.
Chlorophyll and other pigments embedded in the chloroplast
membranes capture the sun’s energy, the first step in the process
essential to life—photosynthesis .
CHAPTER OUTLINE
• Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
• The Plant Cell: An Overview
• Nucleus
• Chloroplasts and Other Plastids
• Mitochondria
• Peroxi somes
• Vacuoles
• Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Golgi Apparatus
• Cytoskeleton
• Flagella and Cilia
• Cell Wall
• The Cell Cycle
• Interphase
• Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Atoms…………………small molecules…………….large and complex
molecules
H,O,C…………………H2O ……………………….CH2O
The properties of the small molecules or the complex molecules are not the
sum of the properties of the elements.
eg: H2O is liquid while H and O are gases.
Cells are the structural and functional unit of life
Smallest organisms are composed of single cell, while the largest are made up
of trillions of cells.
The fact that all organisms are made up of cells was one of the most advances
in biology
The cells of different organisms are similar in their physical and chemical
properties.
Cell theory was formulated early in the nineteenth century
The principles of cell theory are:
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cell
2. All the chemical reactions of living organisms take place within cells.
3. Cells arise from other cells
4. Cells contain the hereditary information.
There are many different kinds of cells: microorganism, plant, fungi, and
animal cells.
Cells are similar in:
1. All are self-contained
2. Partially self sufficient
3. All are bounded by an outer membrane (plasma membrane, plasma
lemma)
4. All cell have cytoplasm which contain variety of structure and various
molecules
5. All cells have DNA which encoded the genetic information.
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Two groups of organisms can be recognized:
Prokaryotes: before nucleus like bacteria
Eukaryotes: with true nucleus like plant cells
Prokaryotes:
1. Lack nucleus: their DNA not surrounded by membrane
2. The DNA is large circular molecule associated with a variety of proteins
localized in a region known as nucleoid.
3. Prokaryotes lack organelles that perform specific functions.
Recently, some organelle-like structures were discovered.
Acidocalcisomed: store energy and control acidity within the bacterial cells.
The Plant Cell: An Overview
The plant cell consists of:
Rigid cell wall
Protoplast (protoplasm): the content of cells
Protoplast consists of:
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
The cytoplasm includes:
Membrane-bounded entities: organelles like plastids, mitochondria
System of membranes: endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus
Nonmembranous entities: ribosome, and microtubules
Cytosol: cellular soup or cytoplasmic matrix in which the nucleus,
organelles, membrane systems are suspended.
Plasma membrane: delimit the outer surface of cytoplasm.
The functions of plasma membrane are:
Mediates the transport of substances into and out of the protoplast
Coordinates the synthesis and assembly of cellulose
Detects and facilitates responses to hormonal and environmental signals
or changes
Plant cells develop one or more liquid-filled cavities (vacuoles) within
their cytoplasm
The vacuole is bounded by single membrane called tonoplast
In the living plant cell, the cytoplasm always in motion (cytoplasmic streaming
or cyclosis), the motion facilities transport of materials within the cell and
between the cell and it is environment.
Nucleus:
The most prominent structure within the protoplast of eukaryotic cells
The functions of nucleus are:
1. It controls the ongoing activities of the cell by determining which protein
molecules are produced by the cell and when they are produced
2. Store the genetic information and pass the information from parents to
daughters.
Nuclear genome is the total genetic information stored in nucleus.
The nucleus is bounded by a pair (inner and outer) of membranes called the
nuclear envelope.
The nuclear envelope contains a large number of circular pores that are 30 to
100 nanometers in diameter.
The pores provide a direct passage way through the nuclear envelope for the
exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
The nucleus contains chromatin and nucleoplasm (the nucleus soup).
The chromatin composed of:
1. DNA
2. Histone proteins
During the nucleus division, the chromatin becomes more condensed and
visible as chromosomes.
Out of nuclear division chromosomes are attached to nuclear envelope.
Different organisms vary in the number of chromosomes present in their
somatic (body) cells.
eg:
Triticum vulgare: 42
Arabidopsis thaliana: 10
One species of fern: 1250
The gametes have only half the number of chromosomes present in the
somatic cells
The number of chromosomes in the gametes is referred to as the haploid
(1n) and in somatic cells as the diploid (2n) number.
Cells that have more than two set of chromosomes are said to be polyploidy
(3n, 4n, 5n).
Nucleolus:
One or more nucleolus is present in nondividing nucleus.
Contain high concentration of RNA, proteins, large loops of DNA.
The large loops of DNA are the site of formation of ribosomal RNA within the
nucleus.
Ribosomes: which are formed in the cytosol, are the site of protein synthesis.
Are small particles
Consists of protein and RNA
The number of protein molecules is more than RNA molecules.
RNA made up about 60% of ribosome
Each ribosome consists of large and small RNA subunits
Ribosomes are abundant in the cytoplasm of metabolically active cells
Ribosomes are found both free in cytosol and attached to endoplasmic
reticulum.
Ribosomes are found in plastids and mitochondria
Polysomes: a cluster of ribosome bounded to an mRNA molecules
The ribosomes of an organism are functionally and structurally identical,
differing from one another only in the proteins they are making at any a given
time.
Chloroplast and other plastids:
Plastids are found in plant cells and they are the site of photosynthesis.
Plastids are:
1. Chloroplast
2. Chromoplast
3. leucoplast
Each plastid is bounded by two membranes.
Internally plastids divided into:
1. thylakoids (membrane system): degree of development varies in plastid
types.
2. Stroma (matrix)
Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis:
Mature plastids are classified on the base of pigments they contain
Chloroplasts contain chlorophylls and cartenoids pigments.
Chlorophyll pigments are responsible for green color of chloroplast
Chloroplasts are found parallel to cell wall and they can reorient in the cell
under the influence of light.
The internal structure of the chloroplast is complex.
Chloroplasts are generally characterized by the presence of:
1. Grana: stack of discklike thyalkoid, the thylakoid of the various grana
called grana thylakoid.
2. Stroma:the thylakoid that transverse the stroma called stroma thylakoids.
Chlorophyll and cartenoids pigments are embedded in the thylakoid
membranes.
The chloroplasts contain starch grains and small lipid (in the active cells of
plant and algae).
The plant that have been kept in the dark for hours lack the starch and the lipid.
Chloroplasts are semiautonomous organelles that resemble bacteria in several
ways?
1-contain one or more nucleoids.
2-contain DNA which is likes the bacteria DNA (circular and no histone)
3-have ribosomes which is smaller than the cytoplasm ribosomes .
Chloroplast and their pigments is the result of the genetic information stored in
both plastid and nucleus DNA.
The overall control of the plastids resides in the nucleus.
Some of the Chloroplast proteins are synthesized in the cytosol.
Chloroplasts are the ultimate source of all our food supplies and our fuel.
Chloroplast synthesis amino acid and fatty acids and store starch for short
period of time.
Chromoplasts contain pigments other than chlorophyll:
Chromoplasts lack chlorophyll but have cartenoids pigments (responsible for
the yellow, orange and red colors in different plant structure).
Chromoplasts may develop from Chloroplast in which the chlorophyll in the
chloroplast disappears and the cartenoids accumulate like the ripening of
tomato fruit.
The function of Chromoplasts could be the attraction of pollinators for
pollination and seed dispersal.
leucoplasts are nonpigmented plastids:
Less differentiated than the other plastids
lack pigments.
Leucoplasts are three kinds:
1. Amyloplasts: synthesize starch.
2. Elaioplasts: synthesize lipid.
3. Proteinoplasts: synthesize protein.
the different types of plastids (chloroplast, chromoplast, leucoplasts) are a rise
or developed from proplastids.
Proplastids are small, colorless or pale green, un differentiated plastids occurs
in meristematic cells.
Proplastids ( in the absence of light )etioplasts (prolamellar bodies) in the
presence of light chloroplasts.
Plastids reproduce by fission (?): dividing into equal halves .
Mitochondria:-
Bounded by two membranes(like plastids)
The inner membrane (cristae) has numerous folds which increase the
surface area for proteins and the reactions associated with them.
Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration
(CH2O+O2CO2+H2O+energy).
Each plant cells has hundreds or thousands of mitochondria and the
number of mitochondria is related to the amount of energy needed from the
cell.
Mitochondria are in constant motion from one part of the cell to another and
they also fuse and divide.
Mitochondria tend to congregate where energy is required;
e.g: in the plasma membrane when it is active in transporting materials into
or out of the cell.
e.g: on the base of the flagella.
Mitochondria are semiautonomous???
Where we can found genetic information in plant cells?????
Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from bacteria
Due to the similarity between bacteria and mitochondria and chloroplasts it
is quite clear the mitochondria and chloroplast originated as a bacteria that
were engulfed by heterotrophic cells.
preoxisomes: (microbodies)
Spherical organelles that are bounded by single membrane.
They have a granular interior, which may contain crystalline or protein body.
Preoxisomes are typically associated with one or two segments of
endoplasmic reticulum.
Preoxisomes are self-replicating organelles.
Preoxisomes undergo movements.
Preoxisomes play an important role in photorespiration.
Glyoxysomes(other preoxisomes) contain the enzymes necessary for the
conversion of stored fats to sucrose during germination in many seeds.
The two types of preoxisome are interconvertable.
vacuoles :-
Founds just in plant cells.
Are organelles bounded by single membrane called tonoplast.
The vacuole may originate from endoplasmic reticulum, while most of the
tonoplast protein derived from golgi apparatus.
The vacuoles are filled with a liquid commonly called cell sap.
Cell sap contains of:
Water (most of it)
Inorganic ions(Na+,K+,…)
Sugar
Organic acid
Amino acid
Some have calcium oxalate crystals.
In most cases, vacuoles don’t synthesize the molecules they accumulate,
but receive them from other parts of the cytoplasm.
The immature plant cell typically contains large number of small vacuoles,
which fuse into a single vacuole at maturity.
At maturity, 90% of the cell volume may be taken up by the vacuole.
The rest of the cell volume (10%) is a thin peripheral layer closely pressed
against the cell wall.
Inside the vacuole an inexpensive materials are stored, while in the peripheral
layer an expensive materials are found.
The thin layer of cytoplasm a quire a large surface with the protoplast which
facilate the material exchange between the cell and the external environment.
Most of the increase in the size cell results from the enlargement of the
vacuole, which develop an internal pressure that maintains the tissue rigid.
vacuoles functions:
1. Storage of primary metabolites (sugars)
2. Removal of toxic secondary metabolites (nicotine) from the rest of
cytoplasm.
3. Site of pigment deposition.
e.g: anthocyanins : responsible for the red color of leaf in autumn.
4. Break down of macromolecules and recycling of their component in the cell
5. Deposition of organelles likes plastids and mitochondria
Vacuoles have digestive activity, so it is like the lysosomes in animal cells
Endoplasmic reticulum
Complex, three dimensional membrane systems that permeates the entire
cytosol.
Forms and abundance of ER is vary from cell to cell depend on cell type
and cell metabolic activity and stage of cell development.
ER types:
1) Rough ER:
•Found in cells store protein
•Consists of flattened sacs (cisternae) and polysomes.
2) Smooth ER:
•Fond in cell that secrete lipids
•Tubular in form
•Lacks ribosomes
•Involved in lipid synthesis
Rough and smooth ER are found in the same cells and have a numerous
connection between them.
ER in continuous motion and change their shape and distribution
In many cells, extensive rough and smooth ER are found just inside the
plasma membrane, which called cortical ER.
The functions of cortical ER are:
1. Regulating the level of Ca+2 ions
2. Structural elements that stabilize the cytoskeleton of the cell
3. Indicator of the metabolic and developmental status of the cell
The rough ER is attached to the nuclear envelope out of cell division.
ER functions are:
1. Communication system within the cell
2. Channeling materials (proteins, lipids) to different parts of the cell
3. Cortical ER connect adjacent cells through palsmodesmata (cell to cell
communications)
4. ER is one of the main sites of lipid synthesis in plant, the other one is the
plastids
eg: oil bodies (sesame seeds: 45% is oil bodies which synthesized by ER).
Golgi apparatus
Golgi bodies consist of cisternae with tubular branches at the margin.
Golgi bodies are a dynamic, highly polarized membrane system.
The structure of Golgi bodies divided into:
•Forming face (cis)
•Middle cisternae (medial)
•Maturing face (Trans)
•Trans-Golgi network
Golgi bodies functions:
•Synthesis and secretion of noncellulosic polysaccharides, which will be
used in the formation of cell wall.
•Process and secrete glycoproteins that are transferred to them from the
rough endoplasmic reticulum via transition vesicles.
The mobility of cellular membranes is exemplified by the
endomembrane system.
All cellular membrane including plasma membrane, nuclear envelope, ER,
golgi bodies, tonoplast, and various kinds of vesicles (except mitochondria,
plastids, and peroxisomes membrane) are constitute a continuous
interconnected system, known as the endomembrane system?
Cytoskeleton
Is a network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol
Cytoskeleton functions:
1. Involved in cell division
2. Involved in growth and differentiation
3. Movement of organelles from one location to another within the cell
Cytoskeleton consists of two types of proteins filaments:
•Microtubules filaments
•Actin filaments
And may be
•Intermediate filaments like animal cells
Microtubules are cylindrical structure composed of tubulin subunits
Each microtubule is build up of subunits of a protein called tubulin
Tubulins are arranged in a helix to form 13 rows or protofilaments around
core.
Within the protofilament the tubulins are oriented in the same direction
All protofilaments are aligned in parallel with the same polarity
during assembly of the microtubules one end grows faster than the other,
the faster one called positive (+) and the slower called negative (-).
Microtubules are dynamic instable which means that microtubules undergo
regular breakdown, reformation, rearrangement into new configurations at
specific point in the cell cycle and during differentiation.
The assembly of microtubules takes place at microtubules organizing center
(the surface of nucleus and portions of cortical cytoplasm).
Microtubules functions:
1. Enlarging and differentiating cells.
2. Cortical microtubules (microtubules just inside the plasma membrane) are
involved in the orderly growth of the cell wall (by controlling the alignments
of cellulose microfibers as they are added to the cell wall).
3. Microtubules serve to direct the secretion of golgi bodies (noncllulosic).
4. Microtubules make up the spindle fibers (spindle fibers have roles in
chromosome movement and cell plate formation).
5. Microtubules are important component of flagella and cilia.
Actin filaments consist of two linear chains of actin molecules in the
form of a helix.
Actin filaments or microtubules are polar structure with + and – ends.
Actin filaments composed of actin proteins.
Actin filaments may be found associated with microtubules.
Actin filaments may be found as single or bundle filaments in the plant
cells.
Actin filaments are involved in:
1. Cell wall deposition
2. Tip growth of pollen tubes
3. Movement of the nucleus before and following cell division
4. Organelle movement
5. Vesicle mediated secretion
6. Organization of ER
7. Cytoplasmic streaming
Flagella and cilia:
They are hairlike structures extand from many types of eukaryotic cells.
Flagella: longer or are present alone or in small numbers
Cilia: shorter or occur in greater numbers.
In plant, flagella and cilia are found only in the reproductive cells (only in
plants that have motile sperms).
eg: moses, cycads, ….
The flagella and cilia of plant cells are consist of an outer ring of nine pairs
of microtubules surrounding two microtubules.
The movement is produced by a sliding microtubule mechanism in which
the outer pairs of microtubules move past one another without contracting.
Flagella and cilia originated from basal bodies.
The internal structure of basal bodies resembles the flagella except that the
outer tubules in the basal body occur in triplets rather than in pairs and the
two central tubules are absent.
Cell wall:
Found in plant cells
Cell wall constrains expansion of the protoplast
Prevents rupture of the cell membrane due to water uptake
Determines the size and shape of the cell and the texture of the tissue
Cell types identified by the cell wall structure
Cell wall has specific and essential functions like:
1. Cell wall contain variety of enzymes involved in absorption, transport,
and secretion of substances in plants.
2. Cell wall play an active role in defense against pathogens by
transmitting information from the pathogen to plasma membrane.
3. Some cell wall polysaccharides may even function as signal molecules.
Cellulose is the principle component of the plant cell walls
Cellulose polymers are bundled into microfibrils
Cellulose has crystalline properties due to the arrangement of its
molecules in certain parts (micelles) of the microfibrils.
Cellulose microfibrils wind together to form threads they may coil around
one another like strands in a cable making it stronger than equivalent
thickness of steel.
Cellulose forms a framework embedded in a matrix of noncellulosic
molecules
The noncellulosic molecules are:
Hemicellulose: polysaccharides
Contains different sugar monomers
Vary from cell to cell and form plant family to another
Make H-bonds with cellulose microfibrils in the cell wall.
The functions of hemicelluloses are:
•Limit the extensibility of the cell wall by tethering adjacent microfibrils
•Play a significant role in regulating cell enlargement.
Pectin: polysaccharides
Found in the primary cell wall (the growing cell wall) and the middle
lamella.
Hydrophilic molecule and attract water to the cell wall which makes the
cell wall pliable (a condition necessary for wall expansion)
The water makes 65% of the growing cell wall.
Glycoproteins:
The cell wall contains structural proteins
eg: extensions: the deposition of this protein in the cell wall make it less
extensible and more strength
the cell wall contains enzymes like phosphatases and cellulases.
Lignin:
Found in the walls of plant cells that have a supporting or mechanical function.
Add strength and rigidity to the cell wall.
Cutin, suberin, and waxes:
Lipids
Found in the walls of the outer, protective tissues of the plant body.
Cutin found in the walls of epidermis
Suberin found in the cork
Cutin and suberin occur in combination with waxes to reduce water loss from
the plant.
Many plant cells have a secondary wall in addition to primary wall
According to the function and the age of the cell, the thickness of the cell
wall is varying.
Primary wall: is the growing wall and made up of cellulosic layers.
Middle lamella: region of union of the primary walls of adjacent cells
(pectin)
Secondary wall:
•Laid down by protoplast
•Additional layers of cellulosic compounds
The primary wall is deposited while the cell is increasing in size
The primary wall is deposited before and during the growth of the plant cell
Primary walls are composed of …
Primary cell wall only found in:
•Dividing cells
•Cells involved in photosynthesis, respiration, secretion
•Living cells
•Cells that are involved in wounding healing and regeneration
Primary cell walls are not uniform in thickness.
Primary cell walls have a primary pit fields (cytoplasmic threads, or
plasmodesmata) which connect the living protoplast of adjacent cells.
The secondary wall is deposited after the primary wall has stopped
increasing in size
Many cells have only primary cell wall and other cells have secondary cell
walls.
The secondary wall is deposited inside the primary wall and is composed
from cellulosic molecules secreted by protoplast.
Secondary walls arise after primary wall stop growing.
Secondary walls provide strength to the cells.
Secondary walls are involved in water conducting and founds in dead cells.
The secondary cell wall composed of:
Cellulose
Hemicelluloses
Lignin
And no pectin and proteins.
Three distinct layers can be distinguished in a secondary wall
The three layers are: S1, S2, S3
The layers differ from one another in the orientation of their cellulose
microfibrils.
Such secondary walls are founds in certain cells of the secondary xylem or
wood.
Whereas the primary walls has pit-fields, the secondary wall has pits
When the secondary wall is deposited, it is not laid over the primary pit-fields
of the primary wall, which means pits are formed in the secondary wall.
Secondary walls are not permeable to water but at the pit site, the adjacent
cells are separated by primary wall only.
A pit in a cell wall occurs opposite a pit in the wall of an adjacent cell.
Middle lamella and two primary walls between two pits are called pit
membrane.
The two opposite pit called pit-pairs
The pits are two types: Simple and Bordered
Growth of the cell wall involves interactions among plasma membrane,
secretary vesicles, and microtubules.
Growth of the cell wall means:
•Grow in thickness
•Grow in surface area
Growth of the cell wall (extension) is controlled by the protoplast.
During growth, the cell wall must:
•Yield enough to allow extent expansion.
•Remaining strong to constrain the protoplast
Growth of the cell wall requires:
1. Loosening of wall structure (influenced by protein called expansins and
hormones).
2. Increase in protein synthesis.
3. Increase in respiration to provide energy
4. Increase in water uptake.
The new cellulose microfibrils are placed on top of the old one.
In cells that enlarge more or less uniformly in all direction, the microfibrils are
laid down randomly forming an irregular network.
In elongated cells, the microfibrils of the side wall are deposited in a place at
right angle to the axis of elongation.
Newly deposited cellulose microfibrils run parallel to the cortical
microtubules.
The cellulose microfibrils are synthesized by cellulose synthase complexes
that occur in the plasma membrane.
The cellulose synthase are embedded in the plasma membrane, each
enzyme synthesizes cellulose from uridine dipphpsphate glucose (UDP-
glucose).
The UDP-glucose molecules enter the enzyme complex on the inner face of
the plasma membrane and the cellulose microfibriles exit from the outer
face of the plasma membrane.
When the newly formed cellulose microfibriles become integrated into the
cell wall, the enzyme complex continue synthesizing cellulose and moving
along in a parallel way to cortical microtubules.
plasmodesmata are cytoplasmic stands that connect the protoplast of
adjustment cells.
The cell cycle:
Cell division means that the contents of a cell are divided between two
daughter cells.
In one-celled organisms (bacteria), cell division increases the number of
individuals in a population.
In many-celled organisms (plants), cell division and cell enlargement means
organism grows and tissues repaired or replaced.
The new cells are similar in both structure and function to the parent cells and
to one another.
The new cell receives about half of the cytoplasm and genetic information of
the parent cell
Before cell division the genetic information of the parent cell must be
replicated.
Cell division in eukaryotes consist of two stages:-
• Mitosis: the duplicated chromosomes are allocated to each of the two
daughter cells.
• Cytokinesis:-the division of the entire cell into two new cells.
The new cell contains:
•Full set of chromosomes
•50% of the cytoplasm of the parent cells
Mitosis and cytokinesis with other events forms the cell cycle.
Cell cycle:- an ordered sequence of events in the life of eukaryotic cell, from
its origin in the division of a parent cell until its own division into two.
Cell cycle divided into:
1) interphase: before and after mitosis.
A period of intense cellular activity: preparation for cell division
eg: chromosome duplication.
Divided into three phases:
a) G1 phase: cell double in size, organelles, enzymes, and other molecules
increase in number.
b) S phase: DNA replicated and associated proteins synthesized, two copies
of cells genetic information now exist.
c) G2 phase: structures required for cell division begin to assemble,
chromosomes begin to condense.
2) M phase:
1) Mitosis
2) cytokinesis
Some cell types pass through successive cell cycles during the life of the
organism.
eg: initials or apical meristems in plant???
Initials may pause in their progress around the cell cycle in response to
environmental factors.
eg: dormancy during winter: this state during which the initials are arrested in
the G1 phase called G0 phase.
In a multicellular organism it is important that the cells divide at appropriate
rate to produce the right number of cells needed for growth and development.
The cell must have mechanisms that can sense whether certain conditions
have been met before proceeding to the next phase.
eg: replication of DNA and synthesis of associated proteins in G2 phase
before proceed to mitosis.
Regulation of cell cycle: is conserved among all eukaryotic cells.
In typical cell cycle, progression is controlled by two check points.
1) G1 checkpoints:
Near the end of G1 phase
Control system, either arrest the cycle or initiates the S phase.
2) G2 check points: control system either arrest the cycle or inhibits mitosis.
3) Spindle assembly check points: delay anaphase if some chromosomes
are not properly attached to the mitotic spindle.
The check points depend of the successful activation and inactivation of
kinases protein.
Two events that occur in interphase are unique to plants:
1) The migration of the nucleus to the center of the cell
Start in the G1 phase just before DNA replication.
The nucleus becomes anchored in the center of the cell by cytoplasmic
strands
Cytoplasmic strands form a sheet of cytoplasm called phragmosome.
2) The appearance of a narrow, ring-like band of microtubules that lies just
beneath the plasma membrane.
The bands encircles the nucleus
The bands appear during G2 just before the first phase of mitosis, it is
called preprophase.
Preprophase bands disappear after initiation of the mitotic spindles long
before initiation of cell plate.
Cell plate: the initial partition between the daughter cells.
Mitosis: divided into four major phases
1) Prophase
2) Metaphase
3) Anaphase
4) telophase
In the four phases, the DNA synthesized in S phase divided equally between
two daughter cells.
Mitosis is followed by cytokinesis (cytoplasm division).
During prophase, the chromosomes shorten and thicken
Prophase is the first phase of mitosis.
Events during prophase:
1. Chromosomes appears as elongated threads scattered throughout the
nucleus, mitosis the Greek word for thread.
2. Chromatin condenses into well-defined chromosomes.
3. As prophase advances, the threads shorten and thicken.
4. The chromosomes becomes evident that each is composed of two
identical sister chromatids which are attached to each other by
centromere.
5. Clear zone appears around the nucleus.
6. At the end of prophase, the nucleus disappears and the unclear
envelope breaks down.
During metaphase, the chromosomes become aligned on the
equatorial plane of the mitotic spindle.
Metaphase begins as the mitotic spindle appears in the area of nucleus.
Mitotic spindle: are three-dimensional structure consists of spindle fibers
(microtubules).
Spindle microtubules are two types:
•Kinetochore microtubules: are microtubules attached to protein called
kinetochores at each side of the centromere.
•Polar microtubules: microtubules extend from pole to pole.
Kinetochore aligns the chromosomes midway between the spindle poles.
When the chromosomes have all moved to the equatorial plane (metaphase
plate), the cell has reached full metaphase.
The mitotic spindle consists of a highly organized array of kinetochore
microtubules and polar microtubules.
During telophase, the chromosomes lengthen and become indistinct
Complete separation of two identical sets of chromosomes.
Nuclear envelope arises around each set of chromosomes.
Spindle apparatus disappears
Chromosomes elongate and become slender thread again.
Nucleoli reform
When telophase completed, the two daughter nuclei inter interphase.
The two daughter nuclei produced during mitosis are genetically identical to
one another.
The duration of mitosis varies with the tissue and the organism involved..
Prophase is the longest and anaphase is the shorter.
Cytokinesis in plant occurs by the formation of a phragmoplast and cell
plate
Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm and follows mitosis.
In bryophytes and vascular plants and in few algae, cell division occurs by
formation of a cell plate, which start in the middle of the cell and grows
outward.
In early telophase, a barrel-shaped system of microtubules called
phragmoplast forms between the two daughter nuclei and the cell plate initiate
as disk suspended in the phragmoplast.
Phragmoplast disappear where the cell plate has formed.
The cell plate grows outward until it reaches the wall of the dividing cell,
completing the separation of the two daughter cells.
The golgi apparatus secrete the substances needed for the formation of the
cell plate.
The End