Layers of the Earth

Essential Question:
How do scientists and
geologists know
what the layers of
Earth are?
• Scientists and geologists have
been able to do some drilling on
Earth. They are also able to
measure sound (seismic) waves
caused by earthquakes and
nuclear explosions and then are
able to determine the
composition of the layers.
 Seismic Waves
• Seismic waves
are waves of
energy caused
either by
earthquakes or
by massive
man-made
explosions.
 Earth’s magnetic field
• The Magnetic
field is created
by massive
circulations of
hot liquid
mantle beneath
the Earth’s
surface.
SOME FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH
 THE CELESTIAL NEIGHBORHOOD

Interstellar space: a ~vacuum with a

virtual absence of matter.
The amount of matter greatly
increases approaching the Sun.
The Sun ejects matter outward
into space as the solar wind.
 SOLAR WIND
Magnetically &
electrically charged
particles.
Stream outward in all
directions.
Consists of…
•Protons (+ charge).
•Electrons (– charge).
Only a small percentage
of the solar wind
impinges upon Earth.
 FIVE KEY CHARACTERISTICS ABOUT
EARTH’S STRUCTURE:

1. Earth has a dipole

magnetic field that
deflects solar wind and
protects earth’s surface
from solar radiation
 EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
 Magnetic field - Like a bar magnet, Earth’s magnetic field is a
dipole, (has both a N and S pole)
 -Solar wind contains electromagnetic particles that are
deflected by earth’s field. These particles distort the shape of
earth’s magnetic field in space
 -Van Allen belts – two belts in the inner magnetic field where
high energy cosmic rays are trapped. Protects us from solar
radiation!
 EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

Geodynamo
The Earth’s magnetic
field is produced by
the geodynamo
Flow in the liquid iron
outer core creates a
magnetic field
 EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

- region affected by force emanating

from a magnet
- grows stronger as separating distance
decreases
- attracts or repels magnetically charged
or moving electrically charged objects
 - compasses work because Earth is a
large magnet
Northern & Southern Lights

Form because of our dipole magnetic field!

 AURORAE
Some ions escape Van Allen
belts.
 –These ions are pulled to the
magnetic poles.
 –The ions create light in the
upper atmosphere.
Spectacular aurora follow solar
flares.
 –Aurora borealis – Northern
lights.
 –Aurora australis – Southern
lights.
 FIVE KEY CHARACTERISTICS ABOUT
EARTH’S STRUCTURE:

2. Earth has a stratified

atmosphere, mainly
composed of nitrogen
(N2) and oxygen (O 2)
 EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

 Distinct layers of gas surround the

solid portion of the earth .
Composition is ~uniform regardless
of altitude
o78% N 2
o21% O 2
oAll others ~1%
oAr, CO 2 , CH 4 , H 2 O, Ne, CO, SO 2
oSome other Planets have
atmospheres too!
oNone have N 2 & O 2 as
dominant gasses
 EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

Convection
Method of heat transfer in a fluid
 Think lava lamp!
Cold is more dense = sinks
Hot is less dense = rises
This process results in circular convection
cells
Also causes pressure gradients which create
wind!
Also applies to the interior of the Earth
 FIVE KEY CHARACTERISTICS ABOUT
EARTH’S STRUCTURE:

3. Earth is made of a

variety of minerals, glasses,
melts, fluids and volatiles,
all left behind during birth
of the solar system
 EARTH’S COMPONENTS
Earth’s elemental composition reflects
mostly heavier elements not blown away
by solar wind during formation of the
solar system
Most abundant elements: Fe, O,
Si, Mg
Most common minerals consist of
silica (SiO 2) mixed in varying
proportions with other elements
such as Fe, Mg, Al, Ca, K, Na
 EARTH’S COMPONENTS
Felsic = more silica
(less Fe/Mg) & less
dense
E.g. Granite
Mafic = less silica
(more Fe/Mg) & more
dense
E.g. Gabbro / Basalt
Range: Felsic /
Intermediate / Mafic / Bulk Earth composition
Ultramafic
 EARTH MATERIALS
 Elements combine in a variety of Earth materials.
Organic compounds – Carbon-containing compounds.
 Most are residue from once -living creatures.
 Include wood, peat, lignite, coal, and oil.
 Geologically rare (decomposes in contact with oxygen).
 EARTH MATERIALS
 Elements combine in a variety of Ear th
materials.
 –Minerals – Inorganic cr ystalline
solids.
Comprise rocks and, hence, most of the
Ear th.
 Most rocks on Ear th are silicates
(based on Si and O).
 –Glasses – Non-cr ystalline mineral -like
matter.
 •Cool too quickly to form structure
 –Rocks – A ggregates of minerals.
There are many types.
 •Igneous – Cooled from a liquid (melt).
 •Sedimentar y – Debris cemented from
pre-existing rock .
 •Metamorphic – Rock altered by
pressure and temperature.
 EARTH MATERIALS
 Metals – Solids made of metallic elements.
 • Melts – Rocks that have been heated to a liquid.
 – Magma – Molten rock beneath the surface.
 – Lava – Molten rock at the surface.
 • Volatiles – Materials that turn into gas at surface temps.
 – H 2 O, CO 2 , CH 4 , and SO 2
 – Volatiles are released from volcanic eruption.
 FIVE KEY CHARACTERISTICS ABOUT
EARTH’S STRUCTURE:

4. The Earth has layers:

a thin silicate crust, a
thick iron- & magnesium
silicate mantle, and a
thick metallic core
Crustal density controls surface
position.
–Continental crust
•Less dense; “floats higher.”
–Oceanic crust
•More dense: “floats lower.”
 CRUSTAL COMPOSITION
 98.5% of the crust is comprised of just 8 elements.
 •Oxygen is (by far!) the most abundant element in the crust.
 –This reflects the importance of silicate (SiO 2 -based) minerals.
 –As a large atom, oxygen occupies ~93% of crustal volume .
BULK EARTH COMPOSITION
 IRON
Most is used to manufacture steel, used in
civil engineering (reinforced concrete, girders
etc) and in manufacturing.
Alloy steels are carbon steels with other
additives such as nickel, chromium,
vanadium, tungsten and manganese. These
are stronger and tougher than carbon steels
and have a huge variety of applications
including bridges, electricity pylons, bicycle
chains, cutting tools and rifle barrels.
 MAGNESIUM
Magnesium is a moderately hard, silvery -
white metal. It is the lightest of all
structural metals. These metals are strong
enough to be used to build buildings,
bridges, automobiles, and airplanes .
It reacts slowly with cold water and
more rapidly with hot water.
 SILICON
It is most widely distributed in dusts,
sands, planetoids, and planets as various
forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or
silicates.
Such use includes industrial
construction with clays, silica
sand, and stone
 EARTH’S MANTLE

 • Solidrock layer between the crust and the core.

 •2,885 km thick, the mantle is 82% of Earth’s
volume.
 •Mantle composition = ultramafic rock called
peridotite.
 •Below ~100-150 km, the rock is hot enough to
flow.
 •It convects: hot mantle rises, cold mantle sinks.
 •Three subdivisions: upper, transitional, and
lower.
 THE CORE
 An iron-rich sphere with a radius of 3,471
km.
 •2 components with differing seismic wave
behavior.
 Outer core
 •Liquid iron-nickel-sulfur
 •2,255 km thick
 •Density – 10-12 g/cm3
 Inner core
 •Solid iron-nickel alloy
 •Radius of 1 ,220 km.
 •Density – 13 g/cm3
 •Flow in the outer core generates the
magnetic field.
 FIVE KEY CHARACTERISTICS ABOUT
EARTH’S STRUCTURE:

5. Physically, the earth

can be divided into a
rigid outer lithosphere
and a plastic/ductile
asthenosphere
 The Earth is made up of 3
main layers:
Crust

Mantle

Core
 Think of the layers of the
Earth like the layers of a cake.
Use the Layers of the Earth
Foldable to take notes
 Ocean Land

Crust
Crust
Ocean Land

• Thinnest layer of the Earth that ranges

from only 2 miles(between 6 and 10
km) in some areas of the ocean floor
to 75 miles(between 20 and 65 km)
deep under mountains
Crust
Ocean Land

• Covers the Earth’s surface and extend

just below the ocean floor
• Made up of large amount of
SILICATE ( silicon and oxygen)
Crust
Ocean Land

•The deepest layer of the

earth a person has ever
gotten to
Crust
Ocean Land

• Two types of crust: oceanic crust and

continental crust
Oceanic Crust- SIMA(silica and
magnesium ). It is made up of
thinner, heavier basalt rock
Basaltic Rock
Crust
Ocean Land

• Continental Crust- SIAL(silica

and aluminum) . It floats like
a raft on the underlying semi
molten mantle.Granitic rock
Granitic Rock
What is the main difference of the two
types of CRUST?

•Oceanic crust is
thinner and seismic
waves travel faster
in oceanic crust
 Crust
• ranges from 5–
70 km in depth
• is where we live
• is broken into
many pieces
called plates.
Classified:
• is like the skin of a. Continental – supports
an apple. the continental plates
b. Oceanic – supports the
ocean floor
Mohorovičić Discontinuity
•The boundary between
the earth's crust and
mantle where the speed
of seismic waves change
Mohorovičić Discontinuity
•The Mohorovicic
Discontinuity was
discovered in 1909 by
Andrija Mohorovicic , a
Croatian seismologist.
 How Deep is the Moho?
•average depth of about 8
kilometers beneath the
ocean basins and 32
kilometers beneath
continental surfaces
 "discontinuity"
• It is used for a surface at which
seismic waves change velocity.
• At this surface, seismic waves
accelerate.
 Has Anyone Ever Seen the Moho?

•The deepest well that has

been drilled to date was
located on the Kola
Peninsula of the Soviet
Union
Gros Morne
National Park,
Newfoundland.

a few rare locations

where mantle
material has been
brought to the surface
by tectonic forces
The Earth’s crust is like the skin of an
apple. Turn to an elbow partner and
discuss why this statement is true.
Next, come up with another example.
 Upper Mantle

Convection
Middle
Currents
Mantle

Lower Mantle

Mantle
 Upper Mantle

Mantle Convection
Currents
Middle
Mantle
Lower Mantle

• Solid but capable of flowing (like hot asphalt or

fudge)
• Thickest layer of the Earth (making up 80% of
the Earth’s mass)
• The hot material (magma) in the mantle rises
to the top of the mantle, cools, then sinks,
reheats, and rises again. These convection
currents cause changes in the Earth’s surface
 Upper Mantle

Mantle Convection
Currents
Middle
Mantle
Lower Mantle

• ASTHENOSPHERE ( weak layer) .It is

also described as a plastic layer
because of its fluid contents. These
materials are sources of magma
that comes out from the surface
during volcanic eruptions
 Upper Mantle

Mantle Convection
Currents
Middle
Mantle
Lower Mantle

• ASTHENOSPHERE ( weak layer) .It

is located at the bottom
part of the upper
mantle
 STRUCTURE OF EARTH
MANTLE

The next layer is the mantle, which is composed mainly of iron and magnesium
silicates. It is been referred as FeMa layer.

Mantle is also where most of the internal heat of the Earth is located. It is about
2900 km thick.

It can be subdivided into four layers namely

(1) Lithosphere (70 – 100 kms)
(2) Asthenosphere (100 - 350 kms)
(3) Upper Mantle (350 – 670 kms)
(4) Lower Mantle (670 – 2900 kms)

Mohorovičić discontinuity, usually referred to as the Moho is the transition

boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle.
 STRUCTURE OF EARTH
MANTLE

The lithosphere is the outermost part of the mantle immediately below the
Mohorovičić discontinuity. It has a part of the tectonic plates that cover surface of
Earth.

Asthenosphere is a low seismic velocity zone where rocks are at or near melting
point. It also has a part of tectonic plates.

The lower mantle is probably mostly silicon, magnesium and oxygen with some
iron, calcium and aluminum.

The upper mantle is made up of mostly olivine and pyroxene (iron/magnesium

silicates), calcium and aluminum
 asthenosphere
 comes from the Greek word “asthenes”
meaning “weak layer”

 about 250 km thick

 flows very slowly and allows tectonic plates to

move across
• The uppermost mantle
together with the crust
constitutes
the LITHOSPHERE

(divides up into huge tectonic plates)

Outer
Core

Inner
Core

Core
 Outer
Core
• Molten (liquid) metal that is about 4,700°C
(8,500°F)
• Located about 1,800 miles beneath the
crust and is about 1,400 miles thick
• Composed of the melted metals nickel and
iron
 STRUCTURE OF EARTH
OUTER CORE

The third layer is outer core. The outer core is a hot and liquid layer comprising
mainly of Nickel and (liquid) Iron. Therefore it is referred as NiFe Layer.

The outer core may also contain lighter elements such as Si, S, C, or O.

The outer core ranges from 2900 kms to 5150 kms and is 2300 km thick.

The Earth's magnetic field is believed to be controlled by the liquid outer core. It is
also believed to be the responsible force of earth’s rotation and electric currents.

The transition space between outer core and mantle is called Gutenberg
discontinuity
 Inner
Core
• Solid sphere composed mostly of iron
• It is believed to be as hot as 6,650°C (12,000°F)
• Heat in the core is probably generated by the
radioactive decay of uranium and other elements
• It is solid because of the pressure from the outer
core, mantle, and crust compressing it
tremendously
 STRUCTURE OF EARTH
INNER CORE

The fourth layer is inner core.

This layer stretches from 5150km to 6370 km and is nearly 1200 km thick.

The inner core is mostly made of solid iron and has little amounts of nickel.

It is unattached to the mantle and is suspended in the molten outer core.

The inner core is believed to have the extreme temperature and pressure
conditions.

The transition region between outer core and inner core is called Lehmann
discontinuity
The Earth is like a peach or a boiled egg.
Turn to a seat partner and discuss these
analogies. Come up with another
analogy and be prepared to share.
 Crust

Mantle
Outer Core Lithosphere – Crust and
Upper Layer of the Mantle
Liquid
Layer of the Mantle
(asthenosphere) that
consists of hot rock of
tar-like consistency,
which slowly moves

Inner Core
Solid
 The lithosphere (crust and upper
mantle) is divided into separate plates
which move very slowly in response to
the “convecting” part of the mantle.
 What do these two images tell
us about the layers of the Earth?
 Temperature
increases as depth increases
Look at the information in the graph and
table below. What’s the relationship
between depth and density/pressure?
 Density and Pressure
increase as depth increases
 Temperature,
Density and
Pressure increases
as depth increases

Add this statement to the

arrow going down on your
foldable.
 Which layer of the Earth has the
greatest temperature, pressure, and
density?

Core
 Summary
The earth is layered with
a lithosphere (crust and
uppermost mantle),
convecting mantle, and
a dense metallic core.

Pressure, temperature,
and density increases
as depth increases. http://www.learner.org/interactives/dynamice
arth/structure.html
 Summary of Earth’s Layers
Copy Table into Notebook

Layer Relative Position Density Composition

Crust Outermost layer;
thinnest under the
ocean, thickest
under continents;
crust and top of
mantle called the
lithosphere
Mantle

Core
 Summary of Earth’s Layers
Copy Table into Notebook

Layer Relative Position Density Composition

Crust Outermost layer;
thinnest under the
ocean, thickest
under continents;
crust and top of
mantle called the
lithosphere
Mantle Middle layer,
thickest layer; top
portion called the
asthenosphere
Core
 Summary of Earth’s Layers
Copy Table into Notebook

Layer Relative Position Density Composition

Crust Outermost layer;
thinnest under the
ocean, thickest
under continents;
crust and top of
mantle called the
lithosphere
Mantle Middle layer,
thickest layer; top
portion called the
asthenosphere
Core Inner layer, consists
of two parts – outer
core and inner core
 Summary of Earth’s Layers
Copy Table into Notebook

Layer Relative Position Density Composition

Crust Outermost layer; Least dense layer
thinnest under the overall; Oceanic
ocean, thickest crust (basalt) is
under continents; more dense than
crust and top of continental crust
mantle called the (granite)
lithosphere
Mantle Middle layer,
thickest layer; top
portion called the
asthenosphere
Core Inner layer, consists
of two parts – outer
core and inner core
 Summary of Earth’s Layers
Copy Table into Notebook

Layer Relative Position Density Composition

Crust Outermost layer; Least dense layer
thinnest under the overall; Oceanic
ocean, thickest crust (basalt) is
under continents; more dense than
crust and top of continental crust
mantle called the (granite)
lithosphere
Mantle Middle layer, Density increases
thickest layer; top with depth because
portion called the of increasing
asthenosphere pressure
Core Inner layer, consists
of two parts – outer
core and inner core
 Summary of Earth’s Layers
Copy Table into Notebook

Layer Relative Position Density Composition

Crust Outermost layer; Least dense layer
thinnest under the overall; Oceanic
ocean, thickest crust (basalt) is
under continents; more dense than
crust and top of continental crust
mantle called the (granite)
lithosphere
Mantle Middle layer, Density increases
thickest layer; top with depth because
portion called the of increasing
asthenosphere pressure
Core Inner layer, consists Heaviest material;
of two parts – outer most dense layer
core and inner core
 Summary of Earth’s Layers
Copy Table into Notebook

Layer Relative Position Density Composition

Crust Outermost layer; Least dense layer Solid Rock – mostly
thinnest under the overall; Oceanic silicon and oxygen
ocean, thickest crust (basalt) is Oceanic crust –
under continents; more dense than basalt;
crust and top of continental crust Continental crust –
mantle called the (granite) granite
lithosphere
Mantle Middle layer, Density increases
thickest layer; top with depth because
portion called the of increasing
asthenosphere pressure
Core Inner layer, consists Heaviest material;
of two parts – outer most dense layer
core and inner core
 Summary of Earth’s Layers
Copy Table into Notebook

Layer Relative Position Density Composition

Crust Outermost layer; Least dense layer Solid Rock – mostly
thinnest under the overall; Oceanic silicon and oxygen
ocean, thickest crust (basalt) is Oceanic crust –
under continents; more dense than basalt;
crust and top of continental crust Continental crust –
mantle called the (granite) granite
lithosphere
Mantle Middle layer, Density increases Hot softened rock;
thickest layer; top with depth because contains iron and
portion called the of increasing magnesium
asthenosphere pressure
Core Inner layer, consists Heaviest material;
of two parts – outer most dense layer
core and inner core
 Summary of Earth’s Layers
Copy Table into Notebook

Layer Relative Position Density Composition

Crust Outermost layer; Least dense layer Solid Rock – mostly
thinnest under the overall; Oceanic silicon and oxygen
ocean, thickest crust (basalt) is Oceanic crust –
under continents; more dense than basalt;
crust and top of continental crust Continental crust –
mantle called the (granite) granite
lithosphere
Mantle Middle layer, Density increases Hot softened rock;
thickest layer; top with depth because contains iron and
portion called the of increasing magnesium
asthenosphere pressure
Core Inner layer, consists Heaviest material; Mostly iron and
of two parts – outer most dense layer nickel; outer core –
core and inner core slow flowing liquid,
inner core, solid