INDIAN LITERATURE

An Introduction and Overview

 Republic of India (Bhārat
Gaṇarājya)
• Total Area: • Currency: Indian rupee (₹) (INR)
3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi) • People (Ethnic Groups):
is considered the 7th largest country.
1. Negrito
• Population:
2. Proto - Australoids or Austrics
2016 estimate
3. Mongoloids
Increase1,324,171,354 (2nd)•
2011 census 4. Mediterranean or Dravidian
1,210,854,977 (2nd)
5. Western Brachycephals
Density
6. Nordic Aryans
• Official Languages:
402.8/km2 (1,043.2/sq mi) (31st)
Hindi, English and Tamil
Flag of India
• The National Flag of
India is a horizontal
rectangular
tricolour of India
saffron, white and
India green; with
the Ashoka Chakra,
a 24-spoke wheel,
in navy blue at its
centre.
• Tiraṅgā (meaning
"Tricolour“)
• Adopted on: 22
July 1947
• Designed by:
Pingali Venkayya
 ANCIENT HISTORY
India's history and culture is dynamic, spanning back to the
beginning of human civilization. It begins with a mysterious culture
along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern
lands of India. The history of India is punctuated by constant
integration of migrating people with the diverse cultures that
surround India. Available evidence suggests that the use of iron,
copper and other metals was widely prevalent in the Indian sub-
continent at a fairly early period, which is indicative of the
progress that this part of the world had made. By the end of the
fourth millennium BC, India had emerged as a region of highly
developed civilization.
• The Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization)
The Indus valley civilization was basically an urban civilization
and the people lived in well-planned and well-built towns, which were
also the centers for trade. The ruins of Mohenjodaro and Harappa
show that these were magnificent merchant cities-well planned,
scientifically laid, and well looked after. They had wide roads and a
well-developed drainage system. The houses were made of baked
bricks and had two or more storeys.
The highly civilized Harappans knew the art of growing cereals,
and wheat and barley constituted their staple food. They consumed
vegetables and fruits and ate mutton, pork and eggs as well.
Evidences also show that they wore cotton as well as woollen
garments. By 1500 BC, the Harappan culture came to an end. Among
various causes ascribed to the decay of Indus Valley Civilization are
the recurrent floods and other natural causes like earthquake, etc.
•Vedic Civilization
The Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in the
history of ancient India. It is named after the Vedas, the
early literature of the Hindu people. The Vedic
Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a
region that now consists of the modern Indian states of
Haryana and Punjab. Vedic is synonymous with
Hinduism, which is another name for religious and
spiritual thought that has evolved from the Vedas.
The Ramayana and Mahabharata were the two
great epics of this period.
• The Buddhist Era
During the life time of Lord Gautam Buddha, sixteen great
powers (Mahajanpadas) existed in the 7th and early 6th centuries
BC. Among the more important republics were the Sakyas of
Kapilavastu and the Licchavis of Vaishali.
• Alexander's Invasion
In 326 BC, Alexander invaded India, after crossing the river
Indus he advanced towards Taxila. He then challenged king Porus
, ruler of the kingdom between the rivers Jhelum and Chenab. The
Indians were defeated in the fierce battle, even though they
fought with elephants, which the Macedonians had never before
seen. Alexander captured Porus and, like the other local rulers he
had defeated, allowed him to continue to govern his territory.
•Gupta Dynasty
After the Kushanas, the Guptas were the most important
dynasty. The Gupta period has been described as the Golden
Age of Indian history. The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty
was Ghatotkacha's son Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi,
the daughter of the chief of the Licchavis. This marriage was a
turning point in the life of Chandragupta I. He got Pataliputra in
dowry from the Lichhavis. From Pataliputra, he laid the foundation
of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states
with the help of the Licchavis. He ruled over Magadha (Bihar),
Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His kingdom extended
from the river Ganges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the
title of Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen
years.
• Harshavardhana
With the commencement of the 7th century,
Harshavardhana (606-647 A.D.) ascended the throne of
Thaneshwar and Kannauj on the death of his brother,
Rajyavardhana. By 612 Harshavardhana consolidated his
kingdom in northern India.
In 620 A.D. Harshavardhana invaded the Chalukya
kingdom in the Deccan, which was then ruled by Pulakesin II.
But the Chalukya resistance proved tough for
Harshavardhana and he was defeated. Harshavardhana is
well known for his religious toleration, able administration and
diplomatic relations. He maintained diplomatic relations with
China and sent envoys, who exchanged ideas of the
Chinese rulers and developed their knowledge about each
other.
Medieval History
For a period that has come to be so strongly
associated with the Islamic influence and rule in India,
Medieval Indian history went for almost three whole
centuries under the so-called indigenous rulers, that
included the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the
Rashtrakutas, the Muslims rulers and finally the Mughal
Empire. The most important dynasty to emerge in the
middle of the 9th century was that of the Cholas.
• The Chola Empire of the South
It emerged in the middle of the 9th century A.D., covered a large
part of Indian peninsula, as well as parts of Sri Lanka and the Maldives
Islands.
The first important ruler to emerge from the dynasty was Rajaraja
Chola I and his son and successor Rajendra Chola. Rajaraja carried
forward the annexation policy of his father. He led armed expedition to
distant lands of Bengal, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh.
The successors of Rajendra I, Rajadhiraj and Rajendra II were
brave rulers who fought fiercely against the later Chalukya kings, but
could not check the decline of Chola Empire. The later Chola kings
were weak and incompetent rulers. The Chola Empire thus lingered on
for another century and a half, and finally came to an end with the
invasion of Malik Kafur in the early 14th century A.D.
Freedom Struggle
In ancient times, people from all over the world were keen
to come to India. The Persians followed by the Iranians and Parsis
immigrated to India. Then came the Moghuls and they too settled
down permanently in India. Chengis Khan, the Mongolian,
invaded and looted India many times. Alexander the Great too,
came to conquer India but went back after a battle with Porus.
He-en Tsang from China came in pursuit of knowledge and to visit
the ancient Indian universities of Nalanda and Takshila. Columbus
wanted to come to India, but instead landed on the shores of
America. Vasco da Gama from Portugal came to trade his
country's goods in return for Indian spices. The French came and
established their colonies in India.
 Lastly, the Britishers came and ruled over India for nearly 200
years. After the battle of Plassey in 1757, the British achieved
political power in India. And their paramountcy was established
during the tenure of Lord Dalhousie, who became the Governor-
General in 1848. He annexed Punjab, Peshawar and the Pathan
tribes in the north-west of India. And by 1856, the British conquest
and its authority were firmly established. And while the British
power gained its heights during the middle of the 19th century, the
discontent of the local rulers, the peasantry, the intellectuals,
common masses as also of the soldiers who became unemployed
due to the disbanding of the armies of various states that were
annexed by the British, became widespread. This soon broke out
into a revolt which assumed the dimensions of the 1857 Mutiny.
What is Indian Literature?
Indian literature, writings of the Indian
subcontinent, produced there in a variety of
vernacular languages, including Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali,
Bengali, Bihari, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri,
Malayalam, Oriya, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Tamil, Telugu,
Urdu, Lahnda, Siraiki, and Sindhi, among others, as
well as in English. The term Indian literature is used
here to refer to literature produced across the Indian
subcontinent prior to the creation of the Republic of
India in 1947 and within the Republic of India after
1947.
 Earliest Indian Literature
• Sanskrit Literature
India has 22 officially recognised languages, and a huge variety of
literature has been produced in these languages over the years. Hindu literary
traditions dominate a large part of Indian culture. Apart from the Vedas, which
are a sacred form of knowledge, there are other works such as the Hindu epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata, treatises such as Vaastu Shastra in architecture
and town planning, and Arthashastra in political science. The most famous works
in Sanskrit are the Hindu holy texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, and Manusmriti.
Another popular literature, Tamil literature has a rich literary tradition spanning
over 2000 years, and is particularly known for its poetic nature in the form of epics,
and philosophical and secular works.
Other great literary works, which marked the golden era of Indian
literature, include 'Abhijanam Shakuntalam' and 'Meghdoot' by Kalidasa,
'Mricchakatika' by Shudraka, 'Svapna Vasavadattam' by Bhaasa, and 'Ratnavali'
by Sri Harsha. Some other famous works are Chanakya's 'Arthashastra' and
Vatsyayana's 'Kamasutra'.
 The most famous works of the Indian literature can
be traced in the vernacular languages of the northern
Indian cults of Krishna and of Rama. Also included are the
12th-century poems by Jaydev, called the 'Gitagovinda' and
religious love poems written in Maithili (eastern Hindi of Bihar).
Literature was also produced in the form of Bhakti (a personal
devotion to a god) addressed to Rama (an avatar of Vishnu),
most notably in the Avadhi (eastern Hindi) works of Tulsi Das;
his 'Ramcharitmanas'. The early gurus or founders of the Sikh
religion, especially Guru Nanak Dev and Guru Arjun Dev, also
composed bhakti hymns to their concepts of deity. In the
16th century, the Rajasthani princess and poet Mira Bai
addressed her bhakti lyric verse to Krishna, as did the Gujarati
poet Narsimh Mehta.
• Hindi Literature
Hindi literature started as religious and philosophical
poetry in medieval periods in dialects like Avadhi and Brij. The
most famous figures from this period are Kabir and Tulsidas. In
modern times, the Khadi dialect became more prominent
and a variety of literature was produced in Sanskrit.
Chandrakanta, written by Devaki Nandan Khatri, is
considered to be the first work of prose in Hindi. Munshi
Premchand was the most famous Hindi novelist. The other
famous poets include Maithili Sharan Gupt, Jaishankar
Prasad, Sumitranandan Pant, Mahadevi Varma, and
Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar'.
 In the British era, a literary revolution occurred with the
influence of Western thought and the introduction of printing press.
Purposeful works were being written to support the cause of
freedom struggle and to remove the existing social evils. Ram
Mohan Roy's campaign for introduction of scientific education in
India and Swami Vivekananda's works are considered to be great
examples of the English literature in India.
During the last 150 years, many writers have contributed to
the development of modern Indian literature, written in a number
of regional languages as well as in English. One of the greatest
Bengali writers, Rabindranath Tagore became the first Indian to
win the Nobel Prize for literature (Gitanjali) in 1913.
• Buddhism and Jainism adopted other literary
languages (Pali and Ardhamagadhi, respectively). The
literature of those languages depended largely on the
ancient Indian background, which includes two Sanskrit
epic poems, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as
well as the Bhagavata-purana and the other
Puranas. In addition, the Sanskrit philosophies were the
source of philosophical writing in the later literatures,
and the Sanskrit schools of rhetoric were of great
importance for the development of court poetry in
many of the modern literatures.
 FAMOUS AUTHORS AND WRITERS
1. Jiddu Krishnamurti
Krishnamurti was a great Indian writer and philosopher who later
in life moved to the USA. You can still find many recordings of his talks
and lectures on YouTube (highly recommended). His interests were
wide-ranging and included psychological revolution, the nature of the
mind, meditation, societal change, and human relationships. I’ve
learned a lot about meditation and the nature of consciousness from
him. This includes the principle of non-grasping and non-judgment
which serve me well to this day.
 He was one of the first people to bring the Eastern thought
to the West. His thesis was that a revolution in the society can only
be brought about at the level of an individual. By changing
ourselves for the better we can change society as a whole. He
pledged no allegiance to a nationality, a caste, or religion and
spent the later years of his life traveling around the world and
giving lectures to large and small groups.
His notable works are:
• Freedom From The Known
• Awakening of Intelligence
2. Aravind Adiga
Adiga, born in 1974 in Chennai (Madras) is a
modern Indian writer whose book “The White Tiger” won
the 2008 Man Booker Prize. After growing up in
Mangalore, he emigrated to Sydney, Australia with his
family. Later on, he studied English literature at the
Columbia University in New York under the famous
English historian, Simon Schama. After his studies, he
began his career as a journalist, traveling the world and
writing for publications such as Financial Times and TIME.
 He finally went freelance and then wrote his first big
book The White Tiger, which portrays Balram, a lead
character coming from crushing rural poverty but
witnessing the rise of India as a modern global economy.
The book sold over 200,000 copies of the hardcover
edition. Now the author is back in India, living in Mumbai,
where he writes and releases a new book every other
year.

His notable works are:

• Last Man In Tower
• The White Tiger
3. Shashi Tharoor
Tharoor is not only famous for his writings. He’s one of
the most influential Indians by any measure because of his
involvement in politics and media. He’s been writing since
1981 and authored 18 best selling works of fiction and non-
fiction. All of them are centered around the history, culture,
film, and politics of his native country. Moreover, he wrote
hundreds of columns for prestigious publications such as the
New York Times, the Washington Post, and the Times of India.
He’s a controversial figure in India known for his polarizing
stances on many social and political issues. It’s almost too
much to digest (he even got charged with abetment to
suicide of his wife in 2018).
His notable works are:
• An Era of Darkness: The British Empire in India
• The Great Indian Novel
4. Amrita Pritam
Pritam, born in 1919 was a novelist, essayist and a poet
who, unlike many of the authors on this list wrote in Punjabi
and Hindi. She is known as the most prominent Punjabi poet
who is loved both by Indians and Pakistanis. She lived a long
life during which she produced over 100 books of poetry,
fiction, biographies, as well as a collection of beautiful
Punjabi folk songs. Her works have been translated into many
Indian and foreign languages. Her book Pinjar (The Skeleton)
was groundbreaking and ultimately got adapted into an
award-winning movie in 2003. She has been often compared
to Mohan Singh and Shiv Kumar Batlavi, and was the most
prominent voice for the liberation of women in Punjabi
literature.
Her notable works are:
• Raseedi Ticket
• Pinjar
FAMOUS INDIAN PLACES
1. Taj Mahal,Agra
Perhaps India's most recognizable building, the Taj Mahal is
also the world's most famous testimony to the power of love.
Named after Mumtaz Mahal, the favorite wife of Emperor Shah
Jahan, this most beautiful of mausoleums was begun upon her
death in 1631 and took 20,000 workmen 22 years to complete.
Incorporating many elements of Islamic design including arches,
minarets, an onion-shaped dome, and black calligraphy inlaid
around the entrance, the Taj Mahal is largely constructed of white
marble decorated with delicate inlaid floral patterns and precious
and semi-precious stones such as jade, lapis lazuli, diamonds, and
mother of pearl
2. The Holy City of Varanasi
A major pilgrimage center for Hindus, the holy city of
Varanasi has long been associated with the mighty Ganges
River, one of the faith's most important religious symbols.
Dating back to the 8th century BC, Varanasi is one of the
oldest still inhabited cities in the world. It offers many reasons
to visit, not least of them the chance to explore the Old
Quarter adjacent to the Ganges where you'll find the Kashi
Vishwanath Temple, built in 1780 (the New Vishwanath
Temple with its seven separate temples is also of interest).
Bathing in the Ganges is of great importance to Hindus, and
numerous locations known as "ghats" feature stairways
leading to the water where the faithful bathe before prayers.
 All told, Varanasi boasts more than 100 ghats, the
largest being Dasashvamedh Ghat and Assi Ghat (the latter,
at the confluence of the Ganges and Asi rivers, is considered
particularly holy). Also worth seeing is Banaras Hindu
University, established in 1917 and noted for its massive library
with more than a million books, and the superb Bharat Kala
Bhavan museum featuring fine collections of miniature
paintings, sculptures, palm-leaf manuscripts, and local history
exhibits.
3. Harmandir Sahib: The Golden Temple of Amritsar
Founded in 1577 by Ram Das, Amritsar is an important hub of
Sikh history and culture. The main attraction here is Harmandir
Sahib, opened in 1604 and still often referred to as the Golden
Temple for its beautiful gold decoration. The holiest of India's many
Sikh shrines (it also attracts many Hindus and people of other
faiths), the temple was built in a blend of Hindu and Islamic styles,
its lower marble section featuring such flourishes as ornate inlaid
floral and animal motifs, while the large golden dome represents a
lotus flower, a symbol of purity to Sikhs. In addition to its splendid
design, visitors are equally impressed with the temple's spiritual
atmosphere, an effect enhanced by the prayers continuously
chanted from the Sikh holy book and broadcast throughout the
complex.
FAMOUS CUISINE IN INDIA
• Biryani
It is a mixed rice dish which can include any kind of meat,
eggs or vegetables. It is a flavorful blend of spices, saffron, rice,
meat and vegetables. Every place in India is known for its unique
type of Biryani. Even though it was originally brought to India from
Persia by the Mughals, Biryani is now synonymous with Indian
cuisine due to its extensive consumption and evolution by the
Indians.
The world-famous Biryani can be tasted in Hyderabad, Telangana
and Lucknowi Biryani in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
• Murg Makhani (Butter Chicken)
Think of the most popular Indian cuisine and you’ll think of
Butter Chicken/Butter Paneer. It is creamy red gravy which is mildly
spiced, yet extremely flavorful. The origin is often traced back to
Punjab. Every restaurant and household in India has their own
unique recipe for Butter Chicken and Butter Paneer. It’s one of the
most popular Indian dishes.
• Naan (Leavened Indian Flatbread)
Naan, a puffy flatbread, is a staple in the Indian kitchen and
can go with everything you make, including many popular dishes
like tandoori chicken or all kinds of kebabs. Though naan
(leavened Indian flatbread) is traditionally cooked in a tandoor or
earthen oven, they work just as well in your own oven. The
ingredient list includes yeast, flour, sugar, and water, as well as
yogurt and ghee.
FAMOUS LITERARY WORKS
1. Mahatma Gandhi – The Story Of My Experiments With The Truth
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi has always been a very
prominent figure in Indian history. From his unbeatable spirit to inspiring
courage, from various controversies to his life as the father of the nation,
Gandhi has always been an interesting, inspiring and impressive
personality to read about.
If you want to know all about Gandhi and his journey, you cannot miss
out on reading ‘My Experiments with the Truth’, his autobiography that
covers his life from early childhood till 1921. The introduction mentions
how Gandhi resumed writing at the insistence of a fellow prisoner at
Yerwada Central jail. The autobiography was written as weekly journals
and then compiled and published as a book. From his childhood
memories, his experiments with eating meat, smoking, drinking and
stealing to the demise of his father, the book captures many unknown
instances of Gandhi’s life.
2. Kumarasambhava, (Sanskrit: “Birth of Kumara”)
Is an epic poem by Kalidasa written in the 5th century CE.
The work describes the courting of the ascetic Shiva, who is
meditating in the mountains, by Parvati, the daughter of the
Himalayas; the conflagration of Kama (the god of desire)—after
his arrow struck Shiva—by the fire from Shiva’s third eye; the
wedding and lovemaking of Shiva and Parvati; and the
subsequent birth of Kumara (Skanda), the war god. The original
poem is in eight cantos, but a sequel was added by an imitator.
3. Kamasutra
Kamasutra is the oldest surviving Hindu text on erotic love. It
is a sutra-genre text with terse aphoristic verses that have survived
into the modern era with different bhasya (exposition and
commentaries). The text is a mix of prose and anustubh-meter
poetry verses. The text acknowledges the Hindu concept of
Purusharthas, and lists desire, sexuality, and emotional fulfillment as
one of the proper goals of life. Its chapters discuss methods for
courtship, training in the arts to be socially engaging, finding a
partner, flirting, maintaining power in a married life, when and how
to commit adultery, sexual positions, and other topics. The majority
of the book is about the philosophy and theory of love, what
triggers desire, what sustains it, and how and when it is good or
bad.
FAMOUS ARTS AND TRADITIONS
Arts and entertainment in India have had their course shaped by
a synthesis of indigenous and foreign influences that have consequently
shaped the course of the arts of the rest of Asia, since ancient times. Arts
refer to paintings, architecture, literature, music, dance, languages and
cinema. In early India, most of the arts were derived Vedic influences.
After the birth of contemporary Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism
arts flourished under the patronage of kings and emperors. The coming
of Islam spawned a whole new era of Indian architecture and art. Finally,
the Bish brought their own Gothic and Roman influences and fused it
with the Indian style. They have a culture infusion in their art.
• Shakuntala – Raja Ravi Verma
Shakuntala is an epic painting by celebrated Indian painter,
Raja Ravi Varma. Ravi Varma, depicts Shakuntala, an important
character of Mahabaratha, pretending to remove a thorn from
her foot, while actually looking for her husband/lover, Dushyantha,
while her friends call her bluff. Tapati Guha Thakurta, an art
historian, wrote;

“This very gesture – the twist and turn of head and body – draws
the viewer into the narrative, inviting one to place this scene within
an imagined sequence of images and events. On its own, the
painting stands like a frozen tableau (like a still from a moving film),
plucked out of an on-running spectacle of episodes.”
• Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-Daro
This 4.1 inches (10.5 centimetres) tall statue of the Dancing
Girl of Mohenjo-Daro is almost 4,500 years old and is made with a
lot of delicate metal sculpting. It was found by Ernest Mackay in
1926 in the HR area of Mohenjo-Daro. The figurine is bronze and is
one out of the two metal art works found in Mohenjo-Daro that
exhibit comparatively flexible features as compared to other more
formal postures. The girl is estimated around 15 years old, is
completely naked leaving four bangles on her right arm and
around twenty-four to twenty-five bangles on her left arm, all up till
her elbow similar to the style of a Banjara lady, and a necklace
which has three pendants. She claims to be holding something in
her left hand and her expressions, according to archaeology
experts, suggest confidence and carefreeness. Her hair is made
up in a bun that rests on her right shoulder.
• Holy Cow
Cow, in the Indian culture, is considered to be a Holy
animal. She is worshipped as a maternal figure and is a
depiction of the bounty of Mother Earth. Lord Krishna, who
grew up as cow herder is often depicted as playing his flute
among cows and Gopis (milkmaids) dancing to his tunes.
Interestingly, Lord Krishna is also known by the name of
'Govinda' or 'Gopala', which translates to the 'friend and
protector of cow'. Hence, cows have an auspicious
significance in Indian culture and religion. Even Lord Shiva's
trusted vehicle is Nandi- the sacred bull. Thus, feeding a cow
or making contributions for cow shelters is of immense
religious importance for Indians.
 The Vedic scriptures, in various verses, have emphasised
the need to protect and care for cows. Cows are a source of
life-sustaining milk. Even the cow dung is an essential and
energy efficient source of fuel, especially in rural India. Killing
the cow or consuming cow meet is considered to be a sin.
Hence, several states in India have banned the slaughter of
cows by law. Mother cow is, however, not worshipped as
other deities. Indian culture and religion appreciate and
expresses its gratitude towards this innocent animal who gives
back to mother Earth and its people in more than one form.