Quality Control:

Concept ,Quality Gurus

 What is Quality?

“ The quality of a product or service is a

customer’s perception of the degree to which
the product or service meets his or her
expectations.”
• According to Dr. W.R.Spriegel , “ The quality of a
product may be defined as the sum of a number
of related characteristics such as shape,
dimension, composition, strength, workmanship,
adjustment, finish and color.”

• According to Henry Fayol, “Control consists in

verifying whether everything occurs in conformity
with the plan adopted, the instructions issued
and principles established. It has for object to
point out weaknesses and errors in order to
rectify them and prevent occurrence. It operates
on everything-things, people and action.”
 What is Quality Control?
• "Quality control may be defined as that industrial
management technique or group of. techniques by
means of which products of uniform acceptable quality
are manufactured."
Alford and Beatty
• "Quality control refers to the systematic control of those
variables encountered in a manufacturing process which
affect the excellence of the end product, Such variables
result from the application of materials, men, machines
and manufacturing conditions,"
Bethel, Atwater and Stackman
 Four dimensions of quality of a good
or service
1. Quality of design
- determined before the product is produced
- Uses a cross-functional team to translate the
wishes of the customer into specifications
- Concurrent design through the Quality Function
Deployment process.
2. Quality of Conformance-
producing a product to meet the specifications
independent of the quality of design.
3. Meets the abilities-
-Availability (Continuity of service to the customers)
- Reliability (Length of time that a product can be used before it
fails – MTBF)
- Maintainability (Restoration of the product or service once it
has failed-MTTR)
4. Field Service
– Warranty and repair or replacement of the product after it
has been sold.
– Also called customer service, sales service, or just service
– Dimensions
• Promptness
• Competence
• Integrity
 Quality Circles
• Teams of workers and supervisors that meet regularly
to address work-related problems involving quality
and productivity.
• Developed by Kaoru Ishikawa at University of Tokyo.
• Became immediately popular in Japan as well as USA.
• Lockheed Missiles and Space Division was the leader
in implementing Quality circles in USA in 1973 (after
their visit to Japan to study the same).
• Typically small day-to-day problems are given to
quality circles. Since workers are most familiar with
the routine tasks, they are asked to identify, analyze
and solve quality problems in the routine processes.
Cost of Quality – 4 Categories
 Seven Problem Solving Tools

• Cause-and-Effect Diagrams
• Flowcharts
• Checklists
• Control Charts
• Scatter Diagrams
• Pareto Analysis
• Histograms
 Cause-and-Effect Diagrams

• Called Fishbone Diagram

• Focused on solving identified quality problem
 Flowcharts
• Used to document the detailed steps in a process
• Often the first step in Process Re-Engineering
 Checklist

• Simple data check-off sheet designed to identify type of quality

problems at each work station; per shift, per machine, per operator
 Control Charts

• Important tool used in Statistical Process Control .

• The UCL and LCL are calculated limits used to show when
process is in or out of control
 Scatter Diagrams

• A graph that shows how two variables are related to one

another
• Data can be used in a regression analysis to establish
equation for the relationship
 Pareto Analysis

• Technique that displays the degree of importance for each element

• Named after the 19th century Italian economist
• Often called the 80-20 Rule
• Principle is that quality problems are the result of only a few problems e.g. 80%
of the problems caused by 20% of causes
 Histograms

• A chart that shows the frequency distribution of observed values of a

variable like service time at a bank drive-up window
 Quality Losses
It estimates the loss of quality resulting from
the deviation of a product characteristic from
its target value. Developed by Dr. Genichi
Taguchi of Japan, it is often expressed in terms
of money lost, and suggests that such losses
increase geometrically as the square of the
deviation from the target
Quality Losses
 The Quality Gurus
• Quality Gurus
–Individuals who have been identified as making a
significant contribution to improving the quality of
goods and services.
• Walter A. Shewhart
• W. Edwards Deming
• Joseph M. Juran
• Armand Feigenbaum
• Philip Crosby
• Kaoru Ishikawa
 Quality Gurus
• Walter Shewart
– In 1920s, developed control charts
– Introduced the term “quality assurance”
• W. Edwards Deming
– Developed courses during World War II to teach
statistical quality-control techniques to engineers
and executives of companies that were military
suppliers
– After the war, began teaching statistical quality
control to Japanese companies
• Joseph M. Juran
– Followed Deming to Japan in 1954
– Focused on strategic quality planning
 Quality Gurus (cont.)
 Armand V. Feigenbaum
 In 1951, introduced concepts of total quality
control and continuous quality improvement
 Philip Crosby
 In 1979, emphasized that costs of poor quality far
outweigh the cost of preventing poor quality
 In 1984, defined absolutes of quality
management—conformance to requirements,
prevention, and “zero defects”
 Kaoru Ishikawa
 Promoted use of quality circles
 Developed “fishbone” diagram
 Emphasized importance of internal customer
 Deming’s 14 Points

1. Create constancy of purpose

2. Adopt philosophy of prevention
3. Cease mass inspection
4. Select a few suppliers based on quality
5. Constantly improve system and workers
 Deming’s 14 Points (cont.)
6. Institute worker training
7. Instill leadership among supervisors
8. Eliminate fear among employees
9. Eliminate barriers between departments
10. Eliminate slogans
 Deming’s 14 Points (cont.)
11. Remove numerical quotas
12. Enhance worker pride
13. Institute vigorous training and education
programs
14. Develop a commitment from top
management to implement above 13 points
Deming Wheel: PDCA Cycle

4. Act 1. Plan
Institutionalize improvement; Identify problem and
continue cycle. develop plan for
improvement.

3. Study/Check 2. Do
Assess plan; is it working? Implement plan on a test
basis.
 The Quality Gurus (cont’d)
• Joseph M. Juran
–Emphasized the importance of producing quality
products through an approach focused on quality
planning, control, and improvement.
–Defined product quality as “fitness for use” as
viewed by the customer in:
• Quality of design • Quality of conformance
• Availability • Safety • Field use
–Categorized the cost of quality as:
• Cost of prevention
• Cost of detection/appraisal
• Cost of failure
 The Juran philosophy
Pursue quality on two levels:
1. The mission of the firm as a whole is to
achieve high product quality.
2. The mission of each individual department is
to achieve high production quality.

• Quality should be talked about in a language

senior management understands: money (cost
of poor quality).
• At operational level, focus should be on
conformance to specifications through
elimination of defects- use of statistical
methods.
 The Juran philosophy
Quality Trilogy –
1. Quality planning: Process of preparing to meet
quality goals. Involves understanding customer
needs and developing product features.
2. Quality control: Process of meeting quality goals
during operations. Control parameters. Measuring
the deviation and taking action.
3. Quality improvement: Process for breaking through
to unprecedented levels of performance. Identify
areas of improvement and get the right people to
bring about the change.
29
 Philip Crosby

–Preached that “quality is free.”

–Believed that an organization can reduce
overall costs by improving the overall quality
of its processes.
 The Crosby philosophy
Absolute’s of Management
• Quality means conformance to requirements not elegance.
• There is no such thing as quality problem.
• There is no such thing as economics of quality: it is always
cheaper to do the job right the first time.
• The only performance measurement is the cost of quality:
the cost of non-conformance.
Basic Elements of Improvement
• Determination (commitment by the top management)
• Education (of the employees towards Zero Defects (ZD))
• Implementation (of the organizational processes towards
ZD)
31
Three of the Quality Gurus Compared
Three of the Quality Gurus Compared
(cont’d)
Three of the Quality Gurus Compared
(cont’d)
 STASTICAL QUALITY CONTROL
Statistical quality control is the application of
statistical techniques to determine how far
the product conforms to the standards of
quality and precision and to what extent its
quality deviates from the standard quality. The
purpose of statistical quality control is to
discover and correct only those forces which
are responsible for variations outside the
stable pattern.
Statistical Quality Control Steps

Produce Good
Start
Provide Service
No
Assign.
Take Sample Causes?
Yes
Inspect Sample Stop Process

Create
Find Out Why
Control Chart
 Three SQC Categories
– Descriptive statistics
• e.g. the mean, standard deviation, and range
– Statistical process control (SPC)
• Involves inspecting the output from a process
• Quality characteristics are measured and charted
• Helpful in identifying in-process variations
– Acceptance sampling used to randomly inspect a batch of
goods to determine acceptance/rejection
• Does not help to catch in-process problems
• Statistical process control is a
collection of tools that when used
together can result in process stability
and variability reduction
 Sources of Variation
• Variation exists in all processes.
• Variation can be categorized as either;
– Common or chance or Random causes of variation, or
• Random causes that we cannot identify
• Unavoidable
• e.g. slight differences in process variables like diameter,
weight, service time, temperature

– Assignable causes of variation

• Causes can be identified and eliminated
• e.g. poor employee training, worn tool, machine needing
repair
Techniques of statistical quality control

(1) Control Charts

(2) Acceptance Sampling
 Traditional Statistical Tools
• Descriptive Statistics include
– The Mean- measure of central tendency
n
– The Range- difference between largest/smallest
observations in a set of data
x i
x i 1

– Standard Deviation measures the amount of data

n
dispersion around mean
– Distribution of Data shape
• Normal or bell shaped or
 
n


2
• Skewed xi  X
σ  i 1
n 1
 Distribution of Data
• Normal distributions • Skewed distribution
• Control Charts show sample data plotted on a graph with CL,
UCL, and LCL
• Control chart for variables are used to monitor
characteristics that can be measured, e.g. length, weight,
diameter, time
• Control charts for attributes are used to monitor
characteristics that have discrete values and can be counted,
e.g. % defective, number of flaws in a shirt, number of
broken eggs in a box

© Wiley 2010
 Control Charts for Variables
• Use x-bar charts to monitor the changes in
the mean of a process (central tendencies)
• Use R-bar charts to monitor the dispersion
or variability of the process
• System can show acceptable central
tendencies but unacceptable variability or
• System can show acceptable variability but
unacceptable central tendencies
 What is control charts?
It is a chart and depicts three lines on the chart.
One line is the central line showing the average
size. The other two lines one below the central
line and the other above the central line, indicate
the limits of tolerances, within which deviations
from standards are permissible. The actual
measurements of the whole lot or a sample are
plotted on the chart. Those measurement values
which fall outside the tolerance limits are
considered to be out-of-control points and
assignable cause may be said to exist.
 Control Chart
• Control Chart
– Purpose: to monitor process output to see if it
is random
– A time ordered plot representative sample
statistics obtained from an on going process
(e.g. sample means)
– Upper and lower control limits define the
range of acceptable variation
 Control Charts
• Are named according to the statistics being
plotted, i.e., X bar, R, and p
• Have a center line that is the overall
average
• Have limits above and below the center
line at ± 3 standard deviations (usually)
Upper Control Limit (UCL)

Center line

Lower Control Limit (LCL)

 Control Chart

Abnormal variation Out of

due to assignable sources control
UCL

Mean
Normal variation
due to chance LCL
Abnormal variation
due to assignable sources

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sample number
Commonly Used Control Charts
• Variables data
– x-bar and R-charts

• Attribute data
– For “defectives” (p-chart)
 Control Charts for Variables
Variables generate data that are measured.
• Mean control charts
– Used to monitor the central tendency of a
process.
– X bar charts

• Range control charts

– Used to monitor the process dispersion
– R charts
 Variables Data Charts
• Process Centering
n
– X bar chart
– X bar is a sample mean
X i
X i 1
n
• Process Dispersion (consistency)
– R chart
– R is a sample range R  max( X i )  min( X i )
 X bar charts
• Center line is the grand mean (X double bar)
• Points are X bars m

x  / n
X
j 1
j

X
m
UCL  X  z x LCL  X  z x
-OR-

UCL  X  A2 R LCL  X  A2 R
 R Charts
• Center line is the grand mean (R bar)
• Points are R
• D3 and D4 values are tabled according to n
(sample size)

UCL  D4 R LCL  D3 R
Sampling by Variable (Table 1)
 Sampling by Variable Example
You collect the following
data from a process at
your company. Draw the
X and R charts for the
process.
 Sampling by Variable Example
• First calculate the average of the sample means
and the average of the sample ranges:
X i R i
X i
 10.21 R i
 0.60
m m

• Then calculate sample mean control limits:

UCLX  X  A2  R  10.21  0.58  0.60  10.56

LCLX  X  A2  R  10.21  0.58  0.60  9.86

UCLR  D4  R  2.11 0.60  1.27

• Finally, calculate sample mean control limits:

LCLR  D3  R  0  0.60  0
Sampling by XVariable
Chart
Example
Sampling by RVariable
Chart
Example
• You collect the following data for one of your
company’s processes. You can assume the
variable’s standard deviation is 0.1. Draw
process control charts (use z=3).
Sample Obs 1 Obs 2 Obs 3 Obs 4 Obs 5 Avg Range
1 10.68 10.689 10.776 10.798 10.714 10.732 0.116
2 10.79 10.86 10.601 10.746 10.779 10.755 0.259
3 10.78 10.667 10.838 10.785 10.723 10.759 0.171
4 10.59 10.727 10.812 10.775 10.73 10.727 0.221
5 10.69 10.708 10.79 10.758 10.671 10.724 0.119
6 10.75 10.714 10.738 10.719 10.606 10.705 0.143
7 10.79 10.713 10.689 10.877 10.603 10.735 0.274
8 10.74 10.779 10.11 10.737 10.75 10.624 0.669
9 10.77 10.773 10.641 10.644 10.725 10.710 0.132
10 10.72 10.671 10.708 10.85 10.712 10.732 0.179
11 10.79 10.821 10.764 10.658 10.708 10.748 0.163
12 10.62 10.802 10.818 10.872 10.727 10.768 0.250
13 10.66 10.822 10.893 10.544 10.75 10.733 0.349
14 10.81 10.749 10.859 10.801 10.701 10.783 0.158
15 10.66 10.681 10.644 10.747 10.728 10.692 0.103