IME-111

INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS

Dr. M. Yousaf Anwar

 COURSE CONTENTS
Basics of Materials: Significance, classification and
electrical/thermal/mechanical properties (Machinability,
workability, malleability, ductility, strain hardening, tensile strength,
toughness, resilience, etc).
Ferrous Alloys: Chemical composition and applications of various
common ferrous alloys.
Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys: Chemical composition and
applications of various common non-ferrous alloys.
Phase diagram of ferrous metals: Phase diagram of various ferrous
materials.
Various Heat-Treatment Techniques: Annealing, solution treatment,
age-hardening.
Testing of Materials: Destructive and non-destructive testing.
Introduction, properties and usage of Non –Metallic Materials:
Wood, plastics, rubber, glass, ceramics, composite materials,
polymers, their composition, properties and uses.
 Recommended Books
• “Materials and Process in Manufacturing” By
E. Paul Degarmo, J T. Black Ronald and A.
Kohser , 12th edition, 2017, John Wiley & Son,
Inc. (Text Book)
• Introduction of Physical Metallurgy By
Sidney H. Avner , 2nd Edition, 1974,
Glencoe/McGraw Hill.
• Introduction to Engineering Materials By
V. B. John, 4th Edition, 2003, Palgrave.
 MATERIALS
Material: The matter from which a thing is or can be
made.
Materials can include but is not limited to raw and
processed materials, components, parts, assemblies,
sub-assemblies, fuels, lubricants, coolants, cleaning
agents, and small tools and accessories that may be
consumed directly or indirectly.
•Materials can be natural or man-made (synthetic).
•Materials can be classified based on different
properties such as physical and chemical properties,
geological, biological, or mechanical properties.
•In industry, materials are inputs to production or
manufacturing processes.
•They may either be raw material, that is, unprocessed,
or processed before being used in more advanced
production processes, either by distillation or
synthesis (synthetic materials).
• Materials can be classified as metallic or non-
metallic materials (polymers, ceramics, composites).
•Metallic materials can be further classified as Ferrous
Metals and Non-ferrous Metals.
Engineering Materials OR Industrial Materials:
Almost every substance known to man has found its way
into the engineering workshop at some time or other. The
most convenient way to study the properties and uses of
engineering materials is to classify them into ‘families’ as
shown in Figure:
Engineering Materials
•Materials Science: Strictly speaking, “Materials Science”
involves investigating the relationships that exist between
the structures and properties of materials.
•Materials Engineering: In contrast, “Materials
Engineering” is on the basis of these structure–property
correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a
material to produce a predetermined set of properties.
•From a functional perspective, the role of a materials
scientist is to develop or synthesize new materials, whereas
a materials engineer is called upon to create new products
or systems using existing materials, and/or to develop
techniques for processing materials.
 Metal
• A metal is a solid material that is typically hard,
opaque, shiny, and usually have good electrical
and thermal conductivity.
• Metals are generally malleable and ductile. That
is, they can be hammered or pressed and drawn
out into a thin wire permanently out of shape
without breaking or cracking.
• Able to be fused or melted.
 Properties of Metals
• Metals in general have high electrical conductivity,
high thermal conductivity, and high density.
• In terms of optical properties, metals are shiny and
lustrous.
• Sheets of metal beyond a few micro meters in
thickness appear opaque.
 Alloys
• An alloy is a combination of two or more elements
in which the main component is a metal.
• Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle or
chemically reactive for practical use.
• Combining different ratios of metals as alloys
modifies the properties of pure metals to produce
desirable characteristics.
• The aim of making alloys is generally to make
them less brittle, harder, resistant to corrosion, or
have a more desirable color and luster.
 Alloys
• The alloys of IRON (steel, cast iron, stainless steel, tool
steel etc.) make up the largest proportion both by
quantity and commercial value.
• Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives
low, medium and high carbon steels, increase in carbon
levels reduce the ductility and toughness.
• The addition of silicon will produce cast irons, while the
addition of chromium, nickel and molybdenum to low
carbon steels (more than 10%) results in stainless steels.
• Brass: An alloy of copper and zinc
• Bronze: An alloy of copper and tin
Electrical Properties:
Materials are classified based on their electrical properties as:
Conductors,
Semiconductors and
Insulators.
New to this group is super conductors.
Electrical conductivity of a material is defined in terms of
ease of charge flow through it.
• Charge that flows comprised of either electrons, ions,
charged holes, and their combinations.
• Ohm’s law relates the current and applied voltage:
V = IR, where
V – applied voltage (volts),
I – current (amperes),
R – resistance (ohms).
Conductor — Any material where electric current can flow
freely. Conductive materials, such as metals, have a relatively
low resistance. Copper and aluminium wires are the most
common conductors. Gold and silver are also very good
conductors.
Based on their conductivity, materials are classified as:
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.

Insulator — Any material where electric current does not

flow freely. Insulative materials, such as glass, rubber, air, and
many plastics have a relatively high resistance. Insulators
protect equipment and life from electric shock.
• Some metals lose all resistivity abruptly and completely at
some low temperatures, above 0 K. - phenomenon is called
superconductivity, and the materials that exhibit it are called
superconductors.
• The temperature at which the resistivity vanishes is called the
critical transition temperature, Tc.
•Many metals, solid-solution alloys, some ceramics and
intermetallic compounds exhibit superconductivity. Example.:
Ti, V, Zn, W, Al, Hg, NbTi, Nb3Sn, MgB2, La-Sr-Cu oxide,
carbon nanotubes, etc.
•Semiconductor — A solid substance that has a conductivity
between that of an insulator and that of most metals, either due
to the addition of an impurity or because of temperature
effects. Devices made of semiconductors, notably silicon, are
essential components of most electronic circuits.
Thermal Properties:
Thermal properties are those properties of a material which is
related to its conductivity of heat.
In other words, these are the properties which are exhibited
by a material when heat is passed through it
Thermal properties come under the broader topic of physical
properties of materials.
Thermal properties of a material decides how it reacts when it
is subjected to heat fluctuation (excessive heat or very low
heat, for example). The major components of thermal
properties are:
Heat capacity
Thermal Expansion
Thermal conductivity
Thermal stresses
Heat Capacity:
•Heat capacity of a material can be defined as the amount of
heat required to change the temperature of the material by one
degree.
•The amount of heat is generally expressed in joules or
calories and the temperature in Celsius or Kelvin.
Water, for example, has a specific heat capacity of 4.18 . This
means to heat one gram of water by one degree Celsius, it
would require 4.18 joules of energy.

s = specific heat capacity (sometimes represented by the letter

c, or Cs)
q = heat
m = mass
Δ T = change in temperature
Thermal Expansion:
When heat is passed through a material, its shape changes.
Generally, a material expands when heated. This property of a
material is called Thermal Expansion.
There can be change in area, volume and shape of the
material.
Thermal conductivity:
It is the property of a material to conduct heat through itself.
Materials with high thermal conductivity will conduct more
heat than the ones with low conductivity.
For example, an iron rod will conduct more heat than
normal window glass.
Some materials do not conduct heat at all because of the
insulating properties of materials.
Thermal stress:
The stress experienced by a body due to either thermal
expansion or contraction is called thermal stress. It can be
potentially destructive in nature as it can make the material
explode.
For example, cracks can be seen on roads where the heat is
extreme. The crack is a result of thermal stress.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Machinability: The term machinability refers to the
ease with which a metal can be cut (machined)
permitting the removal of the material with a
satisfactory finish at low cost.
It is usually measured by length of cutting-tool life
in minutes or by rate of stock removal in relation to
cutting speed employed (depth of cut).
Other important factors are operating conditions,
cutting tool material and geometry, and the machining
process parameters. Materials with good
machinability require little power to cut, can be cut
quickly, easily obtain a good finish, and do not wear
the tooling much; such materials are said to be free
machining.
The factors that typically improve a material's
performance often degrade its machinability.
Therefore, to manufacture components
economically, engineers are challenged to find ways to
improve machinability without harming performance.
Machinability can be difficult to predict because
machining has so many variables.
Two sets of factors are the condition of work
materials and the physical properties of work
materials.
The condition of the work material includes eight
factors: microstructure, grain size, heat treatment,
chemical composition, fabrication, hardness, yield
strength, and tensile strength.
 Physical properties are those of the individual
material groups, such as the modulus of elasticity,
thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, and work
hardening.
Other important factors are operating conditions,
cutting tool material and geometry, and the machining
process parameters.

Effects of Cutting Fluids:

Perform three important functions
Reduce temperature of cutting action
Reduce friction of chips sliding along tool face
Decrease tool wear and increase tool life
Cutting Tools
Workability:
The characteristics that determines the ease with
which a metal may be formed. OR
The degree of deformation that can be achieved in a
particular metalworking process without creating an
undesirable condition is defined as workability.
The evaluation of workability involves both
measurement of the resistance to deformation
(strength) and the amount of plastic deformation
before fracture (ductility).
Therefore, a complete description of the workability
of a material is specified by its flow-stress dependence
on processing variables (strain rate, die temperature,
preheat temperature, etc.), its failure behaviour, and
the metallurgical factors that control the
microstructure of the material.
The limits of workability can be considered cracking
or ductile fracture, but there may be other conditions
such as poor surface finish, buckling, formation of
loops in forging, and unsatisfactory mechanical
properties such as poor fracture toughness or fatigue
strength.
A large number of tests are currently used to evaluate
the workability of a material.
The primary tests are tension, torsion, compression,
and bending.
 The compression test has been the most highly
developed as a workability test.
Usually, the increase in carbon contents of plain
carbon steels reduces their workability.
Classically, pure metals having fcc, bcc, or hcp
structures generally exhibit decreasing workability, in
that order, i.e. fcc metals have good workability and
hcp poor workability.
However, when these metals are alloyed, the classical
distinctions associated with atomic structure are not
always distinguishable because of many other
interrelated variables.
The most important metallurgical variables are:
composition, number of phases present, and grain size.
 In general, the workability of metals and alloys
increases with increasing temperature.
Malleability is a physical property of metals that
defines the ability to be hammered, pressed, or rolled
into thin sheets without breaking.
In other words, it is the property of a metal to
deform under compression into a different form.
A metal's malleability can be measured by how
much pressure (compressive stress) it can withstand
without breaking.
 Differences in malleability among different metals
are due to variances in their crystal structures.
The crystal structure of harder metals, such as
antimony and bismuth, makes it more difficult to press
atoms into new positions without breaking.
High hardness ---- less malleable
Compression stress forces atoms to roll over each
other into new positions without breaking their
metallic bond.
When a large amount of stress is put on a malleable
metal, the atoms roll over each other, permanently
staying in their new position.
Examples of malleable metals are: gold, silver, iron,
aluminium, copper, tin etc.
Ductility: Ductility is a measure of a metal's ability to
withstand tensile stress (any force that pulls the two ends of a
material away from each other).
The term "ductile" literally means that a metal substance is
capable of being stretched out into a thin wire, and it does not
become weaker or become brittle in the process.
Metals with high ductility such as such as copper can be
drawn into long, thin wires without breaking.
Metals with low ductilities, such as bismuth, will instead
rupture when they are put under tensile stress.
Metals that are ductile are not necessarily malleable. A
common example of the difference between these two
properties is lead, which is highly malleable but not highly
ductile due to its crystal structure.
The crystal structure of metals dictates how they will
deform under stress.
As metals are heated, they generally become less brittle,
allowing for plastic deformation.
In other words, most metals become more ductile when they
are heated and can be more easily drawn into wires without
breaking.
Lead proves to be an exception to this rule, as it becomes
more brittle as it is heated.
While it is difficult to directly compare ductility between
metals, gold and platinum are considered to be the most
ductile.
It is said that gold can be drawn into wires so fine that one
ounce of the metal could reach up to fifty miles.
Two measures of ductility are:
a) elongation and
b) reduction of area.
 The conventional means by which these measures are
obtained is by pulling a specimen in tension until fracture.
Elongation is defined as the increase in the gage length of a
test piece subjected to tensile forces divided by the original
gage length. Elongation is expressed as a percentage of the
original gage length and is given by:
Elongation (%) = 100 x ∆L/Lo
where Lo is the original gage length.
∆L is the change in length of the original gage length when
measured after the specimen fractures and the specimen is
fitted together.
Reduction of area also is expressed as a percentage and is
given by:

Reduction of Area (%) = 100 x (Ao – Af)/Ao

* Where Ao is the original cross sectional area.

* Af is the cross sectional area after fracture and corresponds
to the narrowest part of the neck which occurs at the point of
fracture.
 Malleability Versus Ductility
While malleability is the property of a metal deforming
under compression, ductility is the property of a metal
allowing it to stretch without damage.
Copper is an example of a metal that has both good ductility
(it can be stretched into wires) and good malleability (it can
also be rolled into sheets).
 Tin is malleable and ductile when it is cold but becomes
increasingly brittle when temperatures start rising towards its
melting points.
Most metals, however, become more malleable and ductile
when heated. This is due to the effect that temperature has on
the crystal grains within metals.
 Strain hardening
Strain hardening, also known as work hardening is the
strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation.
 This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements
and dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the
material. Many non-brittle metals with a reasonably high
melting point as well as several polymers can be strengthened
in this fashion.
Strain Hardening occurs when a metal is strained beyond the
yield point. An increasing stress is required to produce
additional plastic deformation and the metal apparently
becomes stronger and more difficult to deform.
 Alloys not amenable to heat treatment, including low-
carbon steel, are often work-hardened.
 Some materials cannot be work-hardened at low
temperatures, such as indium, however others can only be
strengthened via work hardening, such as pure copper and
aluminum.
 Tensile Strength
• Tensile strength is the ability of a material to withstand a
pulling (tensile) force. OR
•Tensile strength is a measurement of the force required to
pull something such as rope, wire, or a structural beam to the
point where it breaks.
• The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of
tensile stress that it can take before failure, for example
breaking.
• It is customarily measured in units of force per cross-
sectional area, e.g. Psi, Mpa.
•For example, if a metal rod one square inch in cross section
can withstand a pulling force of 1,000 pounds but breaks if
more force is applied, the metal has a tensile strength of 1,000
pounds per square inch.
Pascal (unit): The Pascal (symbol: Pa) is the SI derived unit
of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Young’s
modulus and ultimate tensile strength.
It is defined as one newton per square meter.
1 Pa = 1N/m2
where N is the newton and m is the meter.
One pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude
one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square meter.

 Common multiple units of the Pascal are the hectopascal

(1 hPa = 100 Pa), the kilopascal (1 kPa = 1000 Pa) and the
megapascal ( 1 MPa = 1000000 Pa).
There are three types of tensile strength:
•Yield strength - The stress a material can withstand without
permanent deformation
•Ultimate strength - The maximum stress a material can
withstand
•Breaking strength - The stress coordinate on the stress-strain
curve at the point of rupture
•Tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to
tensile failure in one of two manners:
•Ductile failure - Yield as the first stage of failure, some
hardening in the second stage and breakage after a possible
"neck" formation.
•Brittle failure - Sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a
low stress state.
•Tensile strength can be used in terms of either true stress or
engineering stress.
Stress – Strain Curve
 Toughness
 In materials science and metallurgy, toughness is the ability
of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without
fracturing.
 One definition of material toughness is the amount of
energy per unit volume that a material can absorb before
rupturing.
Toughness can also be defined with respect to regions of a
stress–strain diagram. Toughness is related to the area under
the stress–strain curve.
 In order to be tough, a material must be both strong and
ductile.
For example, brittle materials (like ceramics) that are strong
but with limited ductility are not tough; conversely, very
ductile materials with low strengths are also not tough.
To be tough, a material should withstand both high stresses
and high strains.
 Generally speaking, strength indicates how much force
the material can support, while toughness indicates how
much energy a material can absorb before rupturing.
Resilience:
• The capability of a strained body to recover its size and
shape after deformation caused especially by compressive
stress.
•The power or ability to return to the original form, position,
etc., after being bent, compressed, or stretched.
•The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum
energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without creating a
permanent distortion. It can be calculated by integrating the
stress–strain curve from zero to the elastic limit.
Modulus of Resilience