WALANG

FOREVER!
 EUCLID

Aristotle

ARGUMENTATION
is a recreation.
ARCHIMEDES
Topics
Types, Operations and Truth Values
of Propositions

Categorical Syllogisms, Tautologies

and Fallacies

Methods of Proof
What is a PROPOSITION?
 DEFINITION: PROPOSITION
A proposition or a statement is a declarative
sentence that is either true or false but not both.
If the proposition is true, then its truth value is
true and if it is false, then its truth value is false.

EXAMPLE: Which of the following is a proposition?

1. The sun is the center 3. What is the title of your

of the solar system. favourite song?

2. Kindly give me some 4. Kobe Bryant is a tall

sushi. person.
 4. Kobe Bryant is a tall
person.
The statement is
true and false at
HE IS NOT TALL. HE IS TALL. the same time!

DEFINITION: PARADOX
A paradox is a declarative sentence which could
neither be true, nor false, or is both true or false.
MORE EXAMPLES:
1. 0.5 is a very small 6. If 𝒂𝒃 = 𝟎, then either
number. 𝒂 = 𝟎 or 𝒃 = 𝟎.

2. 6 is an odd number. 7. All birds can fly.

8. Humans need oxygen to

3. Did you take a bath?
live.

4. Doctors have bad

9. Move faster.
handwriting.

5. Happy Birthday! 10. I am beautiful.

TYPES OF PROPOSITIONS
DEFINITION: SIMPLE AND COMPOUND PROPOSITION

A proposition is called simple if it contains only one

idea.
A proposition is called compound if it is composed of
at least two simple propositions joined by logical
connectives.
The propositions comprising a compound proposition
are referred to as component propositions.
EXAMPLES: SIMPLE AND COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS

1. The sun is the center of the solar system. Statements 1 and 2 are
simple propositions
2. Heart Evangelista is the wife of Sen. Chiz while statements 3 and
Escudero. 4 are compound
propositions.
3. Pres. Duterte is the 16th president while
Vice Pres. Robredo is either the 12th or the
14th vice president of the Republic of the
Philippines.

4. If the books will arrive on Thursday, they

will be distributed to the students on Friday.
 We will use
propositional
variables to represent
arbitrary
propositions.
 TYPES OF COMPOUND PROPOSITION

Let 𝑃 and 𝑄 be arbitrary propositions.

Type of Compound
Logical Operator Symbolic Form Read as:
Proposition

NEGATION Not ~𝑷 “Not 𝑷”

CONJUNCTION And 𝑷∧𝑸 “𝑷 and 𝑸”

DISJUNCTION Or 𝑷∨𝑸 “𝑷 or 𝑸”

CONDITIONAL If… then… 𝑷→𝑸 “If 𝑷, then 𝑸.”

“𝑷 if and only if
BICONDITIONAL If and only if 𝑷⟷𝑸
𝑸.”
NEGATION: ~𝑷
This logical operator states the exact opposite of a given statement.

Example:
Let 𝑃 and 𝑄 be the following statements:
𝑃: The sum of two odd numbers is even.
𝑄: The sum of an even number and an odd number is even.

Then, ~𝑃 and ~𝑄 are the statements

~𝑃: The sum of two odd numbers is not even.
~𝑄: The sum of an even number and an odd number is not even.
CONJUNCTION: 𝑷 ∧ 𝑸
We observe the connectives and, but, also, moreover, while, etc.
Example:
Let 𝑃,𝑄 and 𝑅 be the following statements:
𝑃: 25 is a perfect square number.
𝑄: 5 is one of the square roots of 25.
𝑅: The square of −5 is 25.
Then, we have
𝑃 ∧ 𝑄: 25 is a perfect square number while 5 is one of its square roots.
𝑃 ∧ 𝑅: 25 is a perfect square number and it is the square of −5.
𝑄 ∧ 𝑅: 5 is one of the square roots of 25 and the square of −5 is 25.
𝑅 ∧ 𝑃: The square of −5 is 25 and 25 is a perfect a perfect square number.
DISJUNCTION: 𝑷 ∨ 𝑸
We observe the words or, unless, either-or, etc.
Example:
Let 𝑃,𝑄 and 𝑅 be the following statements:
𝑃: The mall is closed on Sunday.
𝑄: Mary will buy her clothes at the mall.
𝑅: Mary will go to church on Sunday.
Then, we have
𝑃 ∨ 𝑄: Either the mall is closed on Sunday or Mary will buy her clothes at the mall.
𝑃 ∨ 𝑅: The mall is closed on Sunday unless Mary will go to church on Sunday.
𝑄 ∨ 𝑅: Mary will buy her clothes at the mall or she will go to church on Sunday.
𝑅 ∨ 𝑃: Mary will go to church on Sunday or the mall is closed on Sunday.
CONDITIONAL: 𝑷 → 𝑸
We observe the words if-then, only if, implies, provided that, given that, etc.

In 𝑃 → 𝑄, we say that “𝑃 is a sufficient condition for

𝑄” while “𝑄 is a necessary condition for 𝑃”.

Note:
𝑃 is called the antecedent of the implication.
𝑄 is called the consequent of the implication.
CONDITIONAL: 𝑷 → 𝑸

In an implication 𝑃 → 𝑄, it means that if 𝑃

is true, then 𝑄 is also true.

However, an implication is directional, i.e.,

if 𝑄 is true, it does not necessarily follow
that 𝑃 is also true.
CONDITIONAL: 𝑷 → 𝑸
Example:
Let 𝑃,𝑄 and 𝑅 be the following statements:
𝑃: The curfew is effective today.
𝑄: The police officers will arrest lawbreakers.
𝑅: Teenagers are required to be home by 10PM.
Then, we have
𝑃 → 𝑄: If the curfew is effective today, then the police officers will arrest lawbreakers.
𝑃 → 𝑅: Teenagers are required to be home by 10PM only if the curfew is effective today.
𝑄 → 𝑅: If the police officers will arrest lawbreakers, then teenagers are required to
be home by 10PM.
𝑅 → 𝑃: The curfew is effective today only if teenagers are required to be home by 10PM.
CONDITIONAL: 𝑷 → 𝑸

There are three types of statements that can

be derived from a conditional statement:
𝑄 → 𝑃 is called the CONVERSE of 𝑃 → 𝑄.
~𝑃 → ~𝑄 is called the INVERSE of 𝑃 → 𝑄.
~𝑄 → ~𝑃 is called the CONTRAPOSITIVE
of 𝑃 → 𝑄.
CONDITIONAL: 𝑷 → 𝑸
Example:
𝑃 → 𝑄: If the curfew is effective today, then the police officers will arrest lawbreakers.

CONVERSE:
𝑄 → 𝑃: If the police officers will arrest lawbreakers, then the curfew is effective today.

INVERSE:
~𝑃 → ~𝑄: If the curfew is not effective today, then the police officers will not
arrest lawbreakers.

CONTRAPOSITIVE:
~𝑄 → ~𝑃: If the police officers will not arrest lawbreakers, then the curfew is not
effective today.
BICONDITIONAL: 𝑷 ↔ 𝑸
We observe the words if and only if, is a necessary and sufficient condition,
etc.

If 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 is true, we say that “𝑃 and 𝑄 are

logically equivalent”. That is, they will be
true under exactly the same circumstances.
BICONDITIONAL:
BICONDITIONAL 𝑷 ↔ 𝑸 c

Examples:
1. A real number is even if and only if it is divisible by 2.
2. A polygon is a square if and only if it has four equal sides and four
equal angles.
3. An integer having the factors only 1 and itself is a necessary and
sufficient condition for an integer to be a prime number.

We will now translate some compound

propositions into symbols.
TRANSLATING COMPOUND
PROPOSITIONS INTO
SYMBOLS
 Translate each of the
following statements into
its symbolic form.
1. If the books will arrive on
Thursday, they will be distributed
to the students on Friday.
2. Two lines A and B are parallel if and only if they
are coplanar and they do not intersect.

𝑃: Two lines A and B are parallel.

𝑄: Lines A and B are coplanar.
𝑅: Lines A and B intersect.

ANS: 𝑷 ↔ (𝑸 ∧ ~𝑹)
 3. If you are interested in becoming a volunteer,
you should fill up the application form and submit
it to our headquarters or at any of our local offices.

𝑃: You are interested in becoming a volunteer.

𝑄: You should fill up the application form.
𝑅: You should submit the application form to our headquarters.
S: You should submit the application form at any of our local offices.

ANS:
𝑷 → (𝑸 ∧ 𝑹 ∨ 𝑺 )
 TRUTH TABLES OF
COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS
A TRUTH TABLE is a table showing
all possible truth values of a
particular compound proposition.
TRUTH VALUE OF COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS

NEGATION
𝑷 ∼𝑷
T F
F T
TRUTH VALUE OF COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS

CONJUNCTION
𝑷 𝑸 𝑷∧𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
TRUTH VALUE OF COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS

DISJUNCTION
𝑷 𝑸 𝑷∨𝑸
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
TRUTH VALUE OF COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS

CONDITIONAL
𝑷 𝑸 𝑷→𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
TRUTH VALUE OF COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS

BICONDITIONAL
𝑷 𝑸 𝑷↔𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
 ACTIVITY TIME!!!
CONSTRUCT THE TRUTH TABLES OF THE FOLLOWING
COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS:
1. 𝑷 ∧ ~𝑷

2. (~𝑷 ∧ 𝑸) ↔ (𝑷 → 𝑸)

3. (𝑷 ∧ ~𝑸) → 𝑹
𝑷 ∼𝑷 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷∨𝑸 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷∧𝑸
T F T T T T T T
F T
T F T T F F
F T T F T F
F F F F F F

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷→𝑸 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷↔𝑸
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T F
F F T F F T
DEFINITION: CONTRADICTION, TAUTOLOGY, CONTINGENCY

A contradiction is a compound proposition that is false for

all possible truth values of its component propositions.
A tautology is a compound proposition that is true for all
possible truth values of its component propositions.
v

A contingency is a compound proposition that is neither a

tautology nor a contradiction.
DEFINITION: LOGICALLY EQUIVALENT PROPOSITIONS
Two propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 are said to be logically
equivalent if 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 is a tautology. In symbols, we write
𝑃 ≡ 𝑄.

The statements used for the Rule of

Replacement are logically
equivalent propositions!
EXAMPLE: Determine whether the following
statements are logically equivalent using the
truth tables.
1. ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) and ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞
2. (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟 and 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 → 𝑟
3. (𝑝 ↔ 𝑞) and ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞)
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS
DEFINITION: CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
A categorical proposition is a proposition that expresses
the relationship between two categories or sets.

Propositions of this type is indicated by the quantifiers

such as “all”, “some”, and “no”.
The quantifiers “all”, “every” and “no” are said to be universal
quantifiers since they refer to every element of the set.

If one element of the set violates

the statement, the universal
categorical proposition is false.

EXAMPLES:
(a) All fishes live in water.
(b) No prime number is even.
(c) Every elephant is in Thailand.
(d) No sea creatures can live on land.
The quantifiers “some” is said to be existential quantifiers since it refers
to at least one element of the set only.

If one element of the set satisfied the

statement, then the categorical existential
proposition is true. When will it be false?

EXAMPLES:
(a) Some fishes live in water.
(b) Some prime numbers are even.
(c) Some elephants are in Thailand.
(d) Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.
Let 𝑆 and 𝑃 be the two sets described in the categorical proposition.

Four standard categorical propositions:

P
S S P

All S are P. No S are P.

P x P
x
S S

Some S are P. Some S are not P.

EXAMPLES: Identify the two sets (categories) in each statement and write them in
standard form. Give the negation of each.

1. All volcanoes are mountains.

2. Every politician is rich.

3. No student should cut classes.

4. None of the applicants was hired
by the company.
EXAMPLES: Identify the two sets (categories) in each statement and write them in
standard form. Give the negation of each.

5. Some flowers are yellow.

6. There are animals that swim.

7. Some birds can’t fly.

8. There exist integers which are not
prime.
That’s all for today!
Thank you.