15IT303J

15IT303J COMPUTER NETWORKS

COMPUTER
NETWORKS
 UNIT I : INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER NETWORKS

Evolution of Computer Networks

Classification of Computer Networks LAN,WAN,MAN

Network Topology : BUS, STAR, RING, MESH -

OSI Layered Architecture

TCP/IP Model
 Outline
• Data Communication Overview
– Definition
– Components
– Protocols and standards
• Network Overview
– Connectivity
– Categories
– Internetworks

3
 Motivations
• Efficient way to share resources
– Cost – less expensive
– Accessibility – easier
• Efficient way to exchange information
– Time – faster
– Size – bigger
– Correctness – more accurate

4
 Data Communication: Definition

• Data Communication:
Transfer of data from one device to another via
some form of transmission medium.

5
 Data Communication
Hi, Hi,
how how
are are
you? you?

Hi, how are you? Hi, how are you?

Computer User

01010001 01010001

6
Components in Communication
1 Message
Hi, how are you?

5 Protocol

2 Sender 3 Receiver

4 Medium

7
 Data Representation
• Numbers
– 8/16/32 bit integers
– floating point 150
2

• Text
– ASCII, Unicode
• Images 255

– Bit patterns, Graphics formats JPG/GIF/etc

• Audio  Samples of continuous signal
• Video  Sequence of bitmap images
8
 Protocols and Standards
• Protocol
– A set of rules governing data communications
• Syntax: format of data block
• Semantics: meaning of each section
• Timing: speed and sequencing
• Standards
– De facto (in practice) standards
 not approved but widely adopted
– De jure (in law) standards
 approved by an organization

9
 Standards Organizations
• Creation Committees
– ISO, ITU-T, ANSI, IEEE, EIA
• Forums
• Regulatory Agencies

10
 Direction of Data Flow
• Simplex: One direction only
data flow

Server Monitor

data flow

Keyboard

11
 Direction of Data Flow
• Half Duplex: Both directions, one at a time

data flow at time 1

data flow at time 2

– E.g., walkie-talkies
12
 Direction of Data Flow
• Full Duplex: Both directions simultaneously

data flow

data flow

– E.g., telephone

• Can be emulated on a single communication link using

various methods

13
 Networks
• Network: a set of devices connected by media
links
Laptop
iM ac

Workstation

Media Links
Server
SD

Printer Scanner 14
 Types of Connections
• Point-to-point
• Multipoint (multidrop)

15
Point-To-Point Connection

16
Multipoint Connection

Wireless

17
 Topology
• Topology: physical or logical arrangement of
devices
– Point-to-point
– Mesh
– Star
– Bus
– Ring
– Hybrid

18
Point-to-Point Connection

19
Fully Connected Mesh Topology

A D

B C

20
Fully Connected Mesh Topology

21
Fully Connected Mesh Topology
• Pros:
– Dedicated links
– Robustness
– Privacy
– Easy to identify fault
• Cons:
– A lot of cabling
– I/O ports
– Difficult to move

22
Star Topology
A D

Hub Drop

B C
Drop

23
Star Topology
A D

Switch

B C

24
Star Topology
A D

Hub

B C

25
 Star Topology
• Pros:
– One I/O port per device
– Little cabling
– Easy to install
– Robustness
Hub
– Easy to identify fault

• Cons:
– Single point of failure
– More cabling still
required

26
 Bus Topology

Drop
line

Tap

Terminator

27
 Bus Topology
A B C D

28
Bus Topology

29
Bus Topology
• Pros:
– Little cabling
– Easy to install

• Cons:
– Difficult to modify
– Difficult to isolate fault
– Break in the bus cable
stops all transmission

30
 Ring Topology
C

D
B

31
Ring Topology

32
Ring Topology

• Pros:
– Easy to install
– Easy to identify fault

• Cons:
– Delay in large ring
– Break in the ring stops all
transmission
33
Hybrid Topologies

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
10M100M
ACT ACT
PWR UPLINK

COL COL
SWITCH 131415161718192021222324 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
10M100M
ACT ACT
PWR UPLINK

COLCOL
SWITCH 131415161718192021222324 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

34
 Network Categories
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

35
 Local Area Networks
• Network in a single office, building, or campus

36
 Wide Area Networks
• Network providing long-distance communication
over a country, a continent, or the whole world

37
 Metropolitan Area Networks
• Network extended over an entire city

Bangkhen Kampangsaen

39
 Switching
• Dedicated circuits
• Circuit switching
– Telephone switches
establish circuits
for communication
• Packet switching
– Data are put into
packets telephone
switch
– Each stamped with
source and destination
addresses
– Routers know where to
forward packets
Packet Router
40
 Network of Networks

Company A Company B
Network Interface Card (NIC)

Company C Company D
41
 Internetworking
• How to allow devices from different standards
to communicate
• Gateways/routers – devices capable of
communicating in several standards

• These become "network of networks"

42
 Internetworks
• Two or more networks connected become an
internetwork, or internet

Network1 Network2

Gateway

Network3

• Example: The Internet

43
 The Internet
• The largest internetwork (network of networks) in
the world
• Devices communicating with TCP/IP protocol suite

Stanford U. of Utah

UC Santa Barbara

UCLA

44
 Summary
• Data communication
– Protocols and standards
• Computer networks
– Topologies
– LAN/MAN/WAN
• Internetworks (networks of networks)

45
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

2.46
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.47
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
2.48
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.49
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.50
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.51
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.52
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.53
Figure 2.5 Physical layer

2.54
 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

2.55
Figure 2.6 Data link layer

2.56
 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.57
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

2.58
Figure 2.8 Network layer

2.59
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

2.60
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.61
Figure 2.10 Transport layer

2.62
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

2.63
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

2.64
Figure 2.12 Session layer

2.65
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

2.66
Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

2.67
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.68
Figure 2.14 Application layer

2.69
 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

2.70
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.71
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.72
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.73
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

2.74
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.75
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.76
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the
receiver.

2.77
Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

2.78
 Example 2.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.79
 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router)
has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to
only one link and therefore has only one pair of
addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three
networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each
router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.

2.80
Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.81
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three processes
at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer
needs to communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the
same from the source to destination.

2.82
Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.83
 Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

2.84
 Example 2.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

2.85
 Outline
• Circuit vs. packet switching
• Layered tasks
• Internet protocol suites
• ISO's OSI model

86
 End-to-End Communication
• Direct communication
– Most basic TX
form of communication
TX
RX RX
GND GND Serial Port

• Internet communication
– Communication is performed over the Internet
Internet

87
 Internet Comm. - App's Viewpoint
• Two network applications should interact as if
they werewrite
directly connected read
App App
A B
Internet

• But what's going on underneath?

– What is inside the "cloud"?
88
 Circuit vs. Packet Switching
• Dedicated circuits
• Circuit switching
– Telephone switches
establish circuits
for communication
• Packet switching
– Data are put into
packets telephone
switch
– Each stamped with
source and destination
addresses
– Routers know where to
forward packets
Packet Router
90
 Layered Tasks
• Computer networks are complex systems
– Tasks involve varieties of hardware and software
components, and protocols

• Networking task is divided into several

subtasks, or layers

91
 Real World Example
• Communication between managers of two
companies

Communicate

92
 What Actually Happens
• Communication takes place thru many layers
Logical communication

Secretary:
Secretary: reads and reports
types a letter the message

Delivery boy: Delivery boy:

drops the letter takes the letter

Postal truck

Post office:
Processes and routes the letter
93
 Internet Layer Model
• The Internet Protocol Stack
User
Application Layer Software

Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer Hardware

Transmission
Medium
96
 Application Layer
Responsible for providing services to the user
• The only layer to interact with user

Data Data
Logical communication

Application SMTP HTTP FTP SMTP HTTP FTP

Layer
Data H5 Data H5

to Transport from Transport

97
 Transport Layer
Responsible for delivery of a message
from one process to another

• Duties/services
– Port addressing
– Segmentation and reassembly
– Connection control
– Flow control (end-to-end)
– Error control (end-to-end)

98
 Transport Layer
Process Process … Process Process …

PORT # PORT #

Data Data

Transport Data1 H4 Data2 H4 Data3 H4 Data1 H4 Data2 H4 Data3 H4

Layer (segments)

to Network from Network

99
 Network Layer
Responsible for the delivery of packets
from the original source to the destination

• Duties/services
– Logical addressing
– Routing

100
 Network Layer
from Transport to Transport

Data Data

Network Data H3 Data H3

Layer (packet)

to Data Link from Data Link

101
 Network Layer
Data 1.1 5.7
1.1, 1.2, 6.1, 5.7, ... are logical addresses
1.1 1.2
Network 1

R1
6.1
Network 6

6.6 6.3
R3
R2 5.2
Router
3.3
Network 5
5.7
Network 3
3.8

102
 Data Link Layer
Responsible for transmitting frames
from one node to the next

• Duties/services
– Framing
– Physical addressing
– Flow control (hop-to-hop)
– Error control (hop-to-hop)
– Access control

103
 Data Link Layer
from Network to Network

Data Data

Data Link T2 Data H2 T2 Data H2

Layer (frame)

to Physical from Physical

104
 Data Link Layer
A3, 3B, 82, 9F, ... are physical addresses

Data
9F 3B 82 A3

T2 Data 9F A3
H2

105
 Data 1.1 5.7
Data Link Layer
1.1 1.2
97 32 Network 1
Data 1.1 5.7 97 25 25
R1
6.1
79 Data 1.1 5.7 79 62 Network 6

6.6 6.3 62
12
R3
R2 5.2
54
88
3.3
Data 1.1 5.7 54 74
Network 5
5.7
Network 3 74
3.8

106
 Physical Layer
Responsible for transmitting individual bits
from one node to the next

• Duties/services
– Physical characteristics of interfaces
and media
– Representation of bits
– Data rate (transmission rate)
– Synchronization of bits

107
 Physical Layer
from Data Link to Data Link

Data Data

Physical 01001011 01001011

Layer (bits)

Transmission medium

108
 The Big Picture

L5 data H5 5 5 L5 data H5

L4 data H4 4 4 L4 data H4

L3 data H3 3 3 L3 data H3

T2 L2 data H2 2 2 T2 L2 data H2

0111011010101001010101001 1 1 0111010101010010101010101

Transmission medium
109
 Internet Model

sender router
router receiver

Application Application
Transport Transport
Network Network Network Network
Data Link D.L. D.L. D.L. D.L. Data Link
Physical P.L. P.L. P.L. P.L. Physical

Transmission medium 110

Internet Model

111
 Protocol Suites
• A set of protocols must be constructed
– to ensure that the resulting communication
system is complete and efficient
• Each protocol should handle a part of
communication not handled by other
protocols
• How can we guarantee that protocols work
well together?
– Instead of creating each protocol in isolation,
protocols are designed in complete, cooperative 112
112
 Internet Protocol Suite

Layer Protocols
Application HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP, ...
Transport TCP, UDP, SCTP, ...
Network IP (IPv4), IPv6, ICMP, IGMP, ...
Data Link Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP, ...
Physical RS-232, DSL, 10Base-T, ...

113
 OSI Model
User • OSI – Open Systems
7.Application Layer Interconnection
6.Presentation Layer • Developed by the International
Standards Organizations (ISO)
5.Session Layer
4.Transport Layer
3.Network Layer • Two additional layers
2.Data Link Layer – Presentation layer
1.Physical Layer – Session layer

Transmission
Medium
114
 Session Layer
Responsible for establishing, managing and
terminating connections between applications

• Duties/services
– Interaction management
 Simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex
– Session recovery

115
 Presentation Layer
Responsible for handling differences in
data representation to applications

• Duties/services
– Data translation
– Encryption
– Decryption
– Compression

116