WELL LOGGING

By
Engr. Habib U Zaman Memon
 Introduction
• Well logs –definition: a continuous recording of a
geophysical parameter, plotted against depth in a well
from bottom to top of well.

• Full name = Wireline geophysical log- shortened to ‘well

log’ or ‘log’

• 1st measurements made by Conrad Schlumberger and

Henri Doll
Well log
What is Log Analysis?
• What is logging?

• Why do we do log analysis?

• Locating reservoirs

• Detecting hydrocarbons

• Evaluating porosity

• Distinguishing gas from oil

• Evaluating water saturation

What is logging?
• electrical sensors or sondes
• measure properties of rock and
wellbore
• logs are the physical record of these
measurements
• logs are now recorded digitally, but are
often still presented on paper
 LOG INTERPRETATION OBJECTIVES
• Qualitative Interpretation
• Identification of porous and permeable beds and their
boundaries
• Identification of pore fluid
• Correlation of subsurface strata

• Quantitative Interpretation
• Quantification of porosity
and permeability
• Estimation of volume of hydrocarbon
• Calculation of water saturation
• Volume of shale
 Well logs – Why?
• Necessary because cuttings sampling leaves an imprecise
record of formations being encountered.
• Coring is expensive, slow but precise.
• Logs fill the gap between the two – with experience
calibration, corrections and correlation can replace cores.
The first wireline log
5th September 1927
Wireline logs- Production
Classification of Common Types
Log Type Formation parameter Measured
Mechanical Caliper Hole diameter

Spontaneous Temperature Borehole temperature

Measurement SP (self- Spontaneous electric current
potential)
Gamma ray Natural radioactivity

Induced Measurements Resistivity Resistance to electrical current

Induction Conductivity of electrical current
Sonic Velocity of sound propagation
Density Reaction to gamma ray bombardment
Neutron Reaction to neutron bombardment
Logging Tools
• Rig time is expensive – holes must be logged
immediately.

•May be up to 28m in length by diameter of 3-4

inch

•E.g. Schlumberger sonic tool is 3 3/8 inch

diameter 55.5ft (16.9m) long –simultaneously
records gamma ray. Caliper, SP, deep
resistivity (conductivity), shallow resistivity
and sonic
Log Presentations
 Academic class : Bachelor’s in Petroleum
& Natural Gas Engineering

BASIC ROCK
PROPERTIES & ITS
INTERPRETATIONS
 Introduction
• Well logs are then classified as
follows:
1.Those derived during the process of drilling the well
bore and (Mud logs)
2.Those obtained after the hole has been drilled (Wire
line well logs)
3.Those obtained during the production of
hydrocarbons(Production logs)
Well log classifications
Mud logs:
1. It includes general sample logs
obtained while observing the drill
cuttings which come up with drilling
fluids.
2. This will then help in detecting
hydrocarbons traces in drilling mud.
 Well log classifications
Wire line well logs:
1. These logs work with help of recording device named
as “Sonde”
2. This is run only when the hole is drilled and the data is
transferred to surface via a multiple conductor cable.
3. Data obtained from these logs are plotted as a
continuous plot of data measured versus depth.
4. This continuous plot is obtained only when the
instrument is hoisted from bottom of hole to the
surface.
5. Many types of measurements (logs) are made as the
determination of different rock properties
Rock properties
• Well logs helps in measuring chemical as well as physical properties
of rock. It is convenient to distinguish between rocks when dealing
with well logs according to their mineralogical content.

• Shale is considered to be as clay or contaminated clay and it appears

differently then other rocks on well logging data/sheet.

• Following are the rock properties which are obtained from well logs;
1. Porosity
2. Saturation
3. Permeability
Porosity
1. The ratio of void space to the bulk volume of
rock containing that void space.

2. Porosity can be expressed as a fraction or

percentage of pore volume in a volume of
rock.

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 Types of Porosity
(Geological classifications)
1) Primary porosity refers to the porosity remaining after
the sediments have been compacted but without considering
changes resulting from subsequent chemical action or flow
of waters through the sediments.

2) Secondary porosity is the additional porosity created by

chemical changes, dissolution, dolomitization, fissures and
fractures.
(Note: Dolomitization means when limestone (CaCO3) changes to dolomite
(CaMg(CO3)2))

2 CaCO3 + MgCl2 CaMg(CO3)2+ CaCl2

20
 Types of Porosity
(based on connectivity)
•Absolute porosity:
It is the total porosity regardless of their interconnectivity

•Effective porosity:
This porosity depends opn the inter connected pores and this
porosity is relevant to us because having hydrocarbons in pores is
not enough. They must be connected for us to be able to produce.

•Dead end porosity:

This is also termed as “Residual porosity” which means that they are
interconnected all right but they do not contribute to the flow.

21
Types of Porosity
(based on pore geometry)

Macro Porosity (>1.5 micrometers)

Meso Porosity (0.5-1.5 micrometers)

Micro Porosity (<0.5 micrometers)

Fractures

22
 Porosity
(What is relevant to us?)

Example: Calculate the absolute, effective and dead end porosities

in the following 2-D model, assuming the flow occurring only as
shown below and white pixels are the pore spaces:

Inlet Outlet

23
Solution
Total Volume (V b): 100
Total Pore volume (V p): 39
Absolute porosity: 39 % = 0.39
Effective porosity: 36 % = 0.36
Dead end porosity: 04 % = 0.04

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Porosity
Well consolidated
Pore _ volume
Porosity   100
Bulk _ volume

Fractured
Pore _ volume  Grain _ volume
Porosity  100
Bulk _ volume

Unconsolidated
Pore _ volume
Porosity  100
Pore _ volume  Grain _ volume
Total Porosity
• Density Porosity
•Where:  ma   log
D 
• DPHI – density porosity  ma   fl
• log – density value from logs
• ma – matrix density
• Sand – 2.65 g/cc
• Limestone – 2.71 g/cc
• Dolomite – 2.85 g/cc
• fl – density of formation fluid
 Total Porosity (continued)
Neutron Porosity
• Neutron Porosity log acquired for sandstone and dolomite is mentioned
below;
•Sandstone:
• NPHI = NPHIlog+0.04
•Dolomite:
• NPHI = NPHI log- 0.03
 Total porosity

Total porosity from sonic log is

concluded from two equations:
•Wyllie time averaged equation
• Raymer-Hunt equation
Total porosity
•Sonic porosity
dtlog  dt ma
•Wyllie time averaged eq: S  ( )
•Where: dt flu  dt ma
• SPHI – sonic porosity
• DT – sonic transit time (sec/ft)
• DTma – matrix transit time
• Sandstone –55sec/ft
• Limestone – 49sec/ft
• Dolomite - 44sec/ft
• DTfl – fluid transit time
• Water – 189 sec/ft
Total Porosity
•Sonic porosity Dt  DTma
• Raymer-Hunt equation S  C
DT
• Where
• SPHI – sonic porosity
• C – constant
• ~0.6 high porosity gas saturated,
• 0.67 most reservoirs
• 0.7 old value
• DT – sonic transit time from logs (sec/ft)
• DTma – matrix transit time
 Permeability
1. It is the property of reservoir rock which is
responsible for fluid flow in the pore spaces.
2. Permeability is measured in terms of Darcy and
Milli Darcy
3. The higher is permeability then higher is the
fluid flow from formation to the well bore
4. The permeability of a rock is governed primarily
by size and number of pores in rock that allow
the fluid flow
 Permeability types
• Permeability is classified as:
1. Absolute permeability: is the entire
permeability of rock
2. Effective permeability: is the permeability with
more than one fluid present in the rock pore
space.
3. Relative permeability: is the ratio of Effective to
Absolute permeability
Saturation
1. Saturation is the fraction of pore volume that
has been filled with given fluid.
2. For example water saturation (Sw) is
determined as:
Sw = (Volume of water)/(Volume of pores)
Saturation is measured in percentage (%)
Water Saturation
• Archie
• Dual water
• Waxman-Smits
• Indonesia
Water saturation- Archie
• Watersaturation is the key reservoir rock
property and it is determined by using Archie
equation.

• Mostly in well logging, water saturation is

measured. For e.g. if Sw is 20% then it means
that 20% of pore space has been filled with
water and the rest if filled with some thing else
(oil or gas)
Water saturation -Archie
• Archie developed his famous
equation to calculate, from well
log parameters, the water
saturation (Sw) of the uninvaded
zone in a formation next to a
borehole.
Rw
• Value calculated from spontaneous potential (SP) log
• Measured from water sample
Cementation Exponent
•m
• Affected by
• Clay – volume and type
• Water salinity
• Porosity

• 1.7–2.0 for shaly sandstones

• 2.0–2.5 for porosity with connected vugs
• ~1.0 for fractured rocks
 Saturation exponent
 n
 Varies with
 Wettability
 Sw

 Mineralisation

 Pore geometry

 1.8 (or less) for rocks with clayey matrix or fractures

 4.0 for very strongly oil-wet rocks

 BOREHOLE
ENVIRONMENT
41
Continue
Parameter Flushed Zone Transition Zone Virgin Zone

Resistivity Rxo Ri Rt

Porosity φ Φ Φ

Water Saturation Sxo Si Sw

Water Resistivity Rmf Rz Rw

Equations

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Bore Hole Environment

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Continue……!

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Continue

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Continue

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 Major Types of Wireline Logs
• Electrical Logs
• Resistivity
• Micro spherical focused log (MSFL)
• Shallow/Medium latero log (LLS)
• Deep latero log (LLD)
• Induction

• Lithology Logs
• Gamma ray log
• Spontaneous potential

• Porosity Logs
• Neutron porosity log
• Formation density log
• Sonic/Acoustic log

• Miscellaneous
• Caliperlog
• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance(NMR)
ELECTRICAL LOGS
 RESISTIVITY LOG
Resistivity: resistance to flow of an electric current and it is
scaled in units of ohm-meters

Resistivity Log: It measures and records resistance offered by

the rocks surrounding the bore hole to the passage of an electric
current

• Resistivity logging is a method of well logging that works by

measuring the ability of rocks/sediments to conduct an electric
current
Factors Affecting Resistivity:
Resistivity of water
Porosity of the formation
Pore geometry
Lithology of the formation
Degree of cementation, and
Type and amount of clay in the rock

When a formation is porous and contains salty water, the overall

resistivity will be low. When the formation contains hydrocarbon, or
contains very low porosity, its resistivity will be high. High resistivity

values may indicate a hydrocarbon bearing formation.

Basic Theory on Resistivity:
Resistivity of a formation depends on the resistivity
of the formation water, the amount of water present
and the pore structure geometry.

Resistivity increases with decreasing pore space;

10% porosity is about 10 times more resistive that
30% porosity.

Dense rock with no pore space have very high

resistivity, so they usually deflect the record to the
right, event off the scale.

Resistivity is the inverse/reciprocal of conductivity

The ability to conduct electric current depends

upon;
The volume of water
The salinity of the formation
 Types of
Resistivity Log:
 MSFL (Micro
Spherically Focus Log):
These are used to read
invaded zone resistivity
(Rxo).

 LLS (Shallow/Medium
Latero Log):
These are used to read
transitional zone resistivity.

 LLD (Deep Latero

Log):
These are used to read
uninvaded (undisturbed)
zone resistivity.
•At right side of the resistivity log, there are three
curves (wiggly lines). Each curve measures the
resistivity of the rock in "ohm-m", including the
fluid contained in the rock.

•Porous formations containing mostly salt water

(the kind of water normally found deep
underground) have low resistivity, often about 1-
10 ohms.

•Formations that contain oil and gas have very

high resistivities perhaps 50-500 ohms. The vast
majority of porous rocks hold only salt water.

•Deep resistivity or Deep Latero Log Resistivity

curve (RLLD) is specially focused. At this
distance from the borehole, the natural oil or gas
in the rock is usually undisturbed by the drilling
process, and we can get a really good resistivity
reading.
• Sandstone filled with a
nonconductive fluid such
as oil or fresh water also
deflect to the right.

•Hydrocarbon bearing
zones can be identified in
intervals on the log which
shows high resistivity.

•Because hydrocarbons do
not contain ions which can
conduct electricity, they
show high resistivity on
the log.
Categories of Resistivity Logs:
Induction Log:
The induction tools use coils and magnetic fields to develop currents in the formation
whose intensity is proportional to the conductivity of the formation.

These are used in wells drilled with a relatively fresh-water mud (low salinity) to obtain
more accurate value of true resistivity.

Induction tools measures conductivity of formations/fluids which is the reciprocal of

resistivity.

Latero Log:
The laterolog is a direct current (DC) tool based on Ohm's Law.

The tool has been designed to produce reliable resistivity measurements in boreholes
containing highly saline drilling fluids and/or when surrounded by highly resistive
rocks.
 Laterolog Tools
• Logging with laterologs was introduced to cope with salty mud.

• These muds have a very high conductivity, and consequently the

effect of the borehole on resistivity measurements is also very
high.

• The Laterolog technique is therefore complementary to the

induction logging method, designed for oil-base mud which has
hardly any conductivity at all.
 Comparison of Laterologs

• Schematic diagrams of laterolog 7

(left), laterolog 3 or Guard log
(middle) and spherically focused log
(right). Grey shading represents
desired current path.

• The center current electrode A0 is in

the middle of the current path.
Guard electrodes A1 and A2 keep
the current focused.
• There are two major types of laterologs: three electrode guard
systems and multiple electrode systems. Guard systems utilize
two elongated focusing (guard) electrodes (A1 and A2 and a
small center measure electrode A0. Zero potential difference is
maintained between the center and guard electrodes during
logging.

• Seven electrode systems have an additional two pairs of small

electrodes placed symmetrically on both sides of the center
electrode (M1 – M1’ and M2 – M2’). The zero potential difference
is maintained between these additional electrodes. Seven
electrode systems include the obsolete LL7 style tool.
Dual Latero Log (DLL):
•Older versions such as LL3 or LL7 are no longer
widely used

•This tool is a combination of deep (LLD) and

shallow (LLS) investigation devices

•The most important tool in the family of

Laterolog Tools is the Dual Laterolog-Micro
spherically Focused log (MSFL)

•It consists of deep reading (Rt) and shallow

reading (Ri) resistivity devices

•Deep and shallow measurements are made

simultaneously, at two different frequencies

•Usually run with a Rxo measurement (MSFL)

attached to the lower portion of the tool

•The DLL-MSFL can be run with SP, GR, caliper

and some porosity tools
 Induction Log
• Induction sondes are designed to measure resistivity in wells
drilled with nonconductive mud.

• Induction logs measure conductivity rather than resistivity.

• TheDIL (Dual Induction Latero log) system consists of a deep

investigation induction sonde (ILd), a medium range induction
sonde (ILm), a Latero log 8(LL8) and an SP electrode.

• Theformation resistivity is necessary in order to calculate fluid

saturations using other logs.
LITHOLOGY LOGS
Gamma Ray Log
General
• Gamma Ray (GR) tool measures the
natural radioactivity in formations
• Used to identify lithologies, correlation
and Vsh calculation
• Shale-free sandstones and carbonates
have low concentrations of radioactive
material and give low GR readings
• Increasing shale content (= increasing
content of radioactive material) cause
increasing GR readings
• Be aware, clean sst with K-feldspar,
mica, glauconite, or U-rich waters may
also produces high GR readings
• Usually displayed in the left track
(Correlation track)

Curve Name Mnemonics Units

(Total) Gamma Ray GR API
U-free GR GRS, SGR, KTH API
Potassium POTA, K Percent
Uranium URAN, U Ppm
Thorium THOR, TH ppm
Spectral GR

• The spectral Gamma Ray

(SGR) log records not only
the number of gamma rays
emitted, but also the energy
of each spectrum of the
radiation it encounters.
• Processing that information
gives curves for the
presence of Th, K and U in
the formation
• High K, High GR response
may indicate a feldspathic,
glauconitic or micaceous
Sandstone
Calculation of Shale Volume with GR
• First step is to calculate the
GR Index (IGR)
Spontaneous Potential Log
General

• Spontaneous Potential is one of the earliest logs

used and still in use
• Primarily used for determining gross lithology, i.e
reservoir vs non-reservoir (permeable vs non-
permeable)
The SP Log
• A record of Direct Current (DC) voltage (or Potential) that develops
naturally (spontaneous) between a moveable electrode in the well
and a fixed electrode located at the surface
• Measured in millivolts (mV)
• Mnemonics: SP
• SP response created by electric voltages arising from elctrochemical
factors in the borehole and adjacent rocks
• SP Readings are caused by differences in salinities between mud
filtrate and formation waters in permeable beds
• Salinity of a fluid is inversely proportional to its resistivity, so in
practice mud filtrate salinity is indicated by mud filtrate resistivity
(Rmf) and formation water salinity by formation water resisitivity (Rw)
• Conductive fluid necessary in borehole to create SP response, so
SP cannot be used in nonconductive (e.g. oil based) drilling muds or
in air-filled holes
The SP Log

• Usually displayed in the left

track (correlation)
• Used to
– Detect permeable beds
– Detect boundaries of
permeable beds
– Determine formation-water
resistivity (Rw)
– Determine the volume of shale
in permeable beds
– Detection of hydrocarbons by
the suppression of the SP
curve
Introduction to the term SSP

• SSP:
– Static Spontaneous Potential
– Maximum SP that a thick, shale free, porous and permeable
formation can have for a given ratio between Rmf and Rw
– Determined by formula or by chart
– Necessary for determining accurate values of Rw and volume of
shale
 What influences SP measurement

• SP influenced by:
– Bed thickness
– Bed resistivity
– Borehole diameter
– Invasion
– Shale content
Rmf = fresh
– Hydrocarbon content Rw = salt

and, most important Normal SP

– Ratio of Rmf and Rw

Reversed SP
Fresh water
Rmf = salt
Rw = fresh
SSP: Max deflection possible for given Rmf/Rw
SP: SP response due to presence of thins beds and/or gas presence
PSP: Pseudostatic SP; SP when shale is present
What influences SP measurement

• Bed Thickness
– Thin formations (<3m) the measured SP is less than the SSP.
– Narrow, pointed SP curve; correction for bed thickness required
• Bed Resistivity
– Higher resistivities reduce the reflection of the SP curve
• Borehole and Invasion
– Usually very small and can, in general, be ignored
• Shale Content
– Presence of shale in a permeable formation, reduces the SP deflection
• Hydrocarbon Content
– In hydrocarbon-bearing zones, the SP curves deflection is reduced:
Hydrocarbon suppression. Only qualitative, not possible to determine Shc
Shale Baseline

• Shale Baseline:
– The relatively constant SP
response of shales
– Assumed to be zero
– Permeable zones indicated
where there is a deflection from
the shale baseline
• SP readings are
measured relative to the shale
baseline
– Can drift over long distances.
Of little consequence for single
formations
Shape of the SP curve

• Shape and Amplitude of the

SP deflection opposite a
permeable bed depends on:
– Thickness, h, and true
resistivity, Rt, of the permeable
bed
– Resistivity, Rxo, and diameter,
di, of the zone contaminated by
mud filtrate invasion
– Resistivity, Rs, of the adjacent
shale formation
– Resistivity of the mud, Rm, and
the diameter, dh, of the
borehole
Calculation of Shale Volume with SP

Volume of shale is used in the evaluation

of shaly sand reservoirs
Summary
Principal uses of the SP log

Used for Knowing

Quantitative Rw Rmf and T

Vsh SSP and Shale Baseline

Qualitative Permeability indicator Shale Baseline

POROSITY LOGS
 Neutron Porosity Log (NPHI)
• Neutron porosity log is used to measure the porosity.

• Logging tool bombards neutrons with the walls of well with high speed.
Neutrons collide with two types of atoms.

• Collides with a large rock atom, the atom will bounce the high speed neutron
back with almost no loss of energy.

• Collides with a hydrogen atom (small atom), the hydrogen atom absorbs some
of the neutron’s energy, neutron will bounce back as slow moving neutron. The
slow moving neutron can be captured by an other atom in the rock, causing
that atom to emit a gamma ray.

• The more hydrogen atom in a rock the more slow-moving neutrons and gamma
rays will produce.

• The less hydrogen atom in a rock the less slow-moving neutrons and gamma
rays will produce.
 Neutron Porosity Log (NPHI)
• Hydrogen atom is present in Oil, gas and water in the
pores of the subsurface rock.

• Morethe porous a rock more the slow neutrons and

gamma ray will be emitted. Less porous a rock, the
more fast moving the neutron will emitted.

• Theneutron log is usually recorded in track 2, in unit

percentage.

• The horizontal scale ranges between -15% porosity on

the right side and 45% porosity on the left side.
Neutron Porosity Log (NPHI)
 Neutron Porosity Log (NPHI)
• TheNeutron Log is primarily used to evaluate formation
porosity, but the fact is that it is really just a hydrogen
detector.

• The capture results in the emission of a secondary

gamma ray; some tools, especially older ones, detect the
capture gamma ray (neutron-gamma log).
• Othertools detect intermediate (epithermal) neutrons or
slow (thermal) neutrons (both referred to as neutron-
neutron logs). Modern neutron tools most commonly
count thermal neutrons with an He-3 type detector.
Neutron Porosity Log (NPHI)
Density Logs
 Formation Density Log (ROHB)
• Theformation density log is a porosity log that measures electron
density of a formation

• Dense formations absorb many gamma rays, while low-density

formations absorb fewer. Thus, high-count rates at the detectors
indicate low-density formations, whereas low count rates at the
detectors indicate high-density formations.

• Therefore, scattered gamma rays reaching the detector is an

indication of formation Density. `
Mud cake
(mc + hmc)

Formation (b)

Long spacing
detector

Short spacing
detector
Source
Density Log

Scattered
Gama
rays
POROSITY FROM DENSITY LOG
Porosity equation
ma  b

ma   f
Fluid density equation

f  mf Sxo  h 1  Sxo 

We usually assume the fluid density (f) is between 1.0 and 1.1. If gas is present, the actual f will
be < 1.0 and the calculated porosity will be too high.
mf is the mud filtrate density, g/cc
h is the hydrocarbon density, g/cc
Sxo is the saturation of the flush/zone, decimal
Density Log (ROHB)
 Formation density & neutron porosity
• Bombardment of Neutrons from source.

• If collision is with formation, no loss of energy (no GR).

• If collision with Oil/Gas/Water, slow moving neutrons will be bounce
back, captured and release GR.

• More GR High porosity.

• Less GR Low porosity.

• High Density formations absorb many GR low count rate.

• Low Density formations absorb few GR high count rate.

• Low count Rate (Low GR) Low porosity / high density formation
• High count Rate (High GR) High porosity / Lowdensity formation
POROSITY LOG
Sonic Log
 Sonic/Acoustic Log (∆t)
• Acoustic tools measure the travel time of sound waves in
subsurface formations.
• Acoustic log can be used to determine porosity, fractures and
lithology.
• Evaluating cement bonds between casing and formation.
• Shalehas the lowest sonic velocities, Sandstone has higher
velocities, limestone and dolomite have highest velocities.
• Toolconsist of single transmitter at top and two receiver at different
interval.
• Usually plotted in track 2nd.
Sonic/Acoustic Log (∆t)
Sonic/Acoustic Log (∆t)
Sonic/Acoustic Log (∆t)
CALIPER LOG
•A caliper log is a set of measurements of the size and shape of a bore hole
commonly made when drilling oil and gas wells.
• The Caliper Tool is a 3 armed device that measures the internal diameter
(I.D.) of casing or open hole completions.
• This is an important indicator of cave in or swelling in the bore hole.

Definition
• The caliper tool measures the variation in bore hole diameter as it is
withdrawn from the bottom of the hole.

• It is constructed with two or more articulated arms that push against the
bore hole wall to take measurements.

Working Mechanism
Common Caliper Tool and Log
• The variation in output is translated into changes of diameter after a
simple calibration.

• The caliper log is printed as a continuous series of values of hole diameter

with depth.

Working Mechanism
• Known challenges with caliper logging include borehole spiraling.

• The position of the drill bit may precess as it drills, leading to spiraling
shapes in the wellbore wall, as if the hole had been drilled by a screw.

• If the arms of the caliper log follow the grooves of the spiral, it will report
too high an average diameter.

• Moving in and out of the grooves, the caliper will give erratic or
periodically varying readings.

Difficulties
• This information is crucial to all types of production logging.

• The I.D. must be know in order for an accurate fluid rate to be calculated.

Uses
• Initially many people were incorrectly trained to use caliper logs on only
open hole completions, They assumed the casing to be a clean, constant
I.D. If we are not allowed to run a caliper, we guess the most important
variable in our calculations. but now this is used in cased holes to avoid any
anomalies regarding wellbore size.

Common Mistakes