The Study of Social Problems:

Introduction
Robert Nisbet/T.B. Bottomore/Ram Ahuja
 Definition:

• Social problem is ‘a problem in human

relationships which seriously threatens
society itself or impedes the
important aspirations of many people…. A social
problem exists when organized society’s ability to
order relationships among people seems to be
failing……in other words breakdown in society itself ’
(Raab & Selznick(1959) cited in Bottomer,1962).
 Definition

• Social Pathology includes all

those actions on the prevention
of which public money is spent,
or the doers of which are punished or otherwise
dealt with at the public expense ( Barbara Wootton,
1959 cited in Bottomer,1962).
 Definition:
• A social problem is a way of behaviour
that is regarded by a substantial part of a
Social order as being in violation of one or
More generally accepted or approved norms.

• Two aspects in the definition:

1. Objective
2. Subjective
The Relativity of Social Problem:

• A problem cannot be said to exist until it is defined

as one.
• What is pronounced as deviant behaviour or
immorality in social problem is a relative concept.
• Ex: Incest, Child Marriage

• “The mores make it right.” (W. G. Sumner)

The Relativity of Social Problem:
• Certain philosophers and nearly all religions believed in:
• Absolute Good/ Absolute Bad
• From a social scientist’s perspective no such view exists.

• As sociologists we are obliged to recognize that social problems

are inseparably joined to the subjective awareness of a particular
set of norms.

• This highlights the whole concept of moral consciousness in

society.
The Relativity of Social Problem:
• There is a reciprocal relation between moral
consciousness in a society and the perceived
existence of social problems.
• Emile Durkheim - “Functional necessity of crime”
• Recognition of and response to social problems
creates or reinforces the moral consciousness of any
age.
• Moral attitude towards: Poverty, mental illness, civil
rights, fertility
 The Modern Recognition of Social Problems:

• The historical currents through which social problems

have gained the status of popular recognition are:
1. Secular rationalism: conversion of problems and
conditions from the ancient theological contexts of
good and evil to the rational context of analytical
understanding and control.
• Age of Reason -Enlightenment- Bacon and
Descartes - Control and reform of ‘nature’ to ‘society’
• Criticism: Jeremy Bentham’s Panotpicon –
the well meant, scrupulously rational, but nevertheless
merciless projects for the care of the indigent,
delinquent and mentally disturbed- an unlovable
issue of a marriage between reason and humanity.
 The Modern Recognition of Social Problems:

• Humanitarianism: gradual widening

and institutionalization of compassion.

• Compassion is a timeless and universal

human sentiment, but its objects and intensity varies.

• Alexis de Tocqueville – equalization social ranks followed the

American and French revolution

• The widening of political democracy had the effect of widening

the effective social fields of recognition of suffering.
 The Modern Recognition of Social Problems:

• Tocqueville – “the model system of criminal justice” – early 19th century

US/ North America – life of not one citizen was taken for a political
offence in decades

• He draws the negative demonstration from the treatment of the black

slaves – “frightful misery” and the “cruel punishments” inflicted on blacks
by Southern whites

• “Thus the same man who is full of humanity towards his fellow creatures
when they are at the same time his equals become insensible of their
affections as soon as that equality deceases. His mildness should therefore
be attributed to the equality of conditions rather to civilization and
education.”
 The Cultural base of social problems:

• Social problems as the consequences of “antisocial” behaviour/ as the

embodiment of patently evil elements

• Yet, the crucial contexts of social problems are, in many cases accepted by
society as unquestionable and even good.
• Ex: Alcohol

• Social problem as a cancer to the society - Legislator/policemen as

physician

• This kind of analogy distorts the social reality.

 The comparative study of Social problems:

• No society is free of social dislocation/ deviation

• But it differs widely from culture to culture, from age

to age

• In part this is the consequence of – contrasting states

of moral consciousness and – of living & patterns of
social authority, function and membership
 The comparative study of Social problems:

• Non-literate and folk societies – few social problems

• When the issue of physical survival dominates – less chances of

breakdown of social relationship and deviations from social codes
• Ex: Disasters and natural calamities

• The advanced and free society – problems like poverty, population,

community conflict, divorce

• Problems can be solved given increasing knowledge and the will to use it.
 Approaches to Social problems:

• Religion
• Law
• Journalism
• Art
• Sociology and Social Problems
 Religion
• It is the way religion perceives, identifies and relates social
problems is crucial

• Sacred vs profane , Good/Evil, Right/Wrong

• Social Problems a violations of divinely sanctioned social

order/ God’s commandments

• Manifestations of evil /of original sin

 Law

• Social Problems as violations of normative order

• Punishment for violations

• Cure as a new objective – towards a more humane

objective
 Journalism
• Exposure of and protest against
exploitation, corruption, and degradation
in the society

• Element of sensationalism

• Primary intent is to shock and shame the public into awareness of

violations of legal and moral orders

• Exposure is the overriding aim – understanding, prevention and

cure or punishment is secondary
 Art
• Role of art in spreading
awareness and arousing sympathy

• Art, painting, drama, poetry, cinema, music, novel

• All the above approaches (Religion, law, journalism and

art) have in common is their moral commitment

• Inseparable from ethical codes/ethical intent

 Sociology
• Here the objective is not dramatization, exposure, condemnation,
or repression.

• The primary objective of the sociologist is to uncover the causes of

the problems, to seek their determining contexts and their relation
to other areas of social behavior.

• …sociologists continue to find in their studies of crime, narcotics,

alcohol, delinquency, and other social problems insights into the
nature of human behaviour with implications that reach far beyond
the empirical area from which they are drawn from.
 Sociology
• While applying their knowledge the sociologists have to
contend with two kinds of difficulty:
• First, that of establishing precise causal connections
• Secondly that of delimiting a problem without doing violence
to its relations with important general features of the social
structure and culture.
• For example, Durkheim argued that crime is a ‘normal
phenomenon’; in human societies which could only be
eliminated by social controls and sanctions so repressive as to
destroy many other cherished values; and further, that each
type of society has its own ‘normal’ rate of crime.
 Sociology

• Sociological studies ay encourage a more realistic

approach to social problems, and in particular restrain
those immoderate moral denunciations which often
exacerbate the difficulties.

• They may suggest diminishing the evils without harm to

other social values, and more effective ways of dealing
with their consequences.
(Bottomore 1962: 317)
 Sociology
• What is expected of them is primarily an investigation of the
facts, in the course of which one or a small number of factors
may be revealed as the cause of the problem.

• In other cases, the causation may be much more difficult to

discover, but sociological research may at least eliminate some
popular but erroneous beliefs about the causes, and provide a
sufficient description of the problem situation to be a useful
guide in dealing with it. Ex. War.
(Bottomore 1962: 318)
 Sociology
• According to Barbara Wootton the principal contribution of social sciences
to practical life is found in a scientific attitude and in the use of certain
techniques of inquiry.

• The contribution of sociology is generally seen as consisting in skilled

investigation, which is very apparent in Industrial Sociology.

• Clemens and Evrard - While admitting that there are few instances of the
successful application of sociological principles to solve specific problems,
they make a case for applied industrial sociology in respect of its
contributions to improved organization
(Bottomore 1962: 315)
 Sociology

• The sociologist can rarely solve a problem directly or

propose a policy which is exactly appropriate, even
when s/he is sure what is wrong; for every solution
of a problem and act of policy is a political decision.

(Bottomore 1962: 318-19)

 Sociology

• The sociologist may supply information, elucidate the

context of problems, point to causes or conditions,
indicate the advantages and costs of alternative courses of
action; in the longer term, her/his studies may influence
social ideals themselves.

• But in the last resort political decisions rest upon

judgement, or political wisdom, and upon interests.
(Bottomore 1962: 318-19)
 Reactions to Social Problems

1. An attitude of unconcern
2. Fatalism
3. Vested interest
4. Absence of Expert Knowledge
Stages in the Development of a Social Problem

1. Awareness
2. Policy determination
3. Reform

According to Blumer:
1. Emergence of a problem
2. Legitimation of a problem
3. Mobilization of action
4. Formulation of an official plan
5. Implementation of the official plan
Stages in the Development of a Social Problem

• Spector & Kitsuse (1977: 141-50)

1. Agitation: people feel aggrieved about the existing
situation in the society.
• They agitate against their grievances:
a) To convince others that the problem exists &
b) To initiate action to improve conditions and to
attack the alleged cause of grievance.
2. Legitimation
3. Bureaucratization & reaction
4. Reemergence of the movement
 Theoretical Approaches to Social Problems

• Social Disorganization Approach

• Cultural-lag Approach

• Value-Conflict Approach

• Personal Deviation Approach

• Anomie Approach
 Social Disorganization Approach

• Social Disorganization is a condition of a society,

community or group in which there is a breakdown
of social control, or of a social order, or of formal
or informal norms that define permissible behaviour.

• It is characterized by the lack of co-operation,

common values, unity, discipline and predictability.
•
 Cultural-lag Approach

• It is a situation in which some parts of a culture change at

a faster rate than other related parts resulting in the
disruption of integration and equilibrium of the culture.

• Material Culture – Non-material culture – Cultural Lag

(Ogburn)

• Ex: Population Explosion

 Value-Conflict Approach

• Values provide the generalized standard of behaviour.

• Incompatibility between the values of two or more groups

• It might last only a short while

• May be useful in some areas like economics

 Personal Deviation Approach

• Personal Deviation Approach looks to the

motivation and behaviour of the deviants who are
instrumental in coming problems

• Two factors that need explanation in the PDA are:

• (i) How does personal deviancy develop?
• (ii) What types of personal deviation are frequently
involved in social problems?
 Anomie Approach

• Anomie is a condition characterized by the relative absence or weakening or

confusion of norms and values in society.

• Concept was originally developed by Durkheim to explain Division of labor and

Suicide

• Later Merton used the concept to explain deviant behaviour in terms of functioning
of social and cultural structures in the society.

• Anomie involves a breakdown in the cultural structure : a state of confusion,

insecurity and normlessness.

• It is the counterpart of the idea of solidarity