BASIC

TOOLS FOR
WRITING
Prepared by: Nabillah Rafidah binti Abdul Kadir

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 The basic analogy in the text is with the
carpenter, who has a hammer and a saw. The
carpenter must know what tasks he or she can
accomplish with a hammer and what he or she
must use the saw to do.
A carpenter may have a great idea for
something to build, but unless he or she knows
the difference between a hammer and a saw, it
is unlikely to get built.
The writer is the same way. The writer may have
some great ideas, but those ideas won’t come
into being unless the writer knows the tools he
or she has to work with.
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Basic tools • Sentence structures.

for writers • Sentence types

• Parts of speech
• Use of the comma
• Apostrophe
• Comma splices and run-on sentences.
• Spelling

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 Sentence • Simple
• Complex
structures • Compound
• Compound-complex

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 Sentence SIMPLE SENTENCES

structures
• A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb.
• It expresses a single complete thought that can stand
on its own.

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 Sentence
SIMPLE SENTENCES - Examples

structures
The baby cried for food.
There is a subject and a verb that expresses a complete
thought.

Professor Maple’s intelligent students completed and

turned in their homework.
A simple sentence does not necessarily have to be short. It can
have adjectives. In this case, there are two verbs “completed”
and “turned in.” However, the sentence expresses one
complete thought and therefore is a simple sentence.

Megan and Ron ate too much and felt sick.

Although there are two subjects and two verbs, it is still a
simple sentence because both verbs share the same subjects
and express one complete thought.
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 Sentence COMPOUND SENTENCES
• A compound sentence has two independent clauses.
structures • An independent clause is a part of a sentence that can
stand alone because it contains a subject and a verb
and expresses a complete thought.
• Basically, a compound contains two simple sentences.
• These independent clauses are joined by a conjunction
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

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 Sentence COMPOUND SENTENCES - Examples

structures The shoplifter had stolen clothes, so he ran once he

saw the police.
Both sides of the conjunction “so” are complete sentences.
“The shoplifter had stolen clothes” can stand alone and so
can “he ran once he saw the police.” Therefore, this is a
compound sentence.

They spoke to him in Spanish, but he responded in

English.
This is also a compound sentence that uses a conjunction to
separate two individual clauses.

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 Sentence COMPLEX SENTENCES
• A complex sentence is an independent clause joined by
structures one or more dependent clauses.
• A dependent clause either lacks a subject or a verb or
has both a subject and a verb that does not express a
complete thought.
• A complex sentence always has a subordinator (as,
because, since, after, although, when) or relative
pronouns (who, that, which).

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 COMLEX SENTENCES - Examples

Sentence After eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, Tim went to the

structures
gym to exercise.
The independent clause is ‘Tim went to the gym to exercise.” The
subordinating clause before it is dependent on the main, independent
clause. If one were to say “after eating lunch at The Cheesecake
Factory,” it would be an incomplete thought.
Opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies that
privilege male accomplishments.
The subject is “opinionated women” and the verb is “are given.” The
first part of the sentence “opinionated women are given disadvantages
in societies” is an independent clause that expresses a complete
thought. The following “that privilege male accomplishments” is a
relative clause that describes which types of societies.
The woman who taught Art History 210 was fired for stealing
school supplies.
The dependent clause in this sentence is “who taught Art History 210”
because if removed, the rest of the sentence would stand as an
independent clause. “Who taught Art History 210” is an adjective
clause that provides necessary details about the subject, woman.

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 Sentence COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES
• A compound-complex sentence has two independent
structures clauses and at least one dependent clause.

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 COMPOUND-COMLEX SENTENCES - Examples

Sentence
structures
After the two soccer players lost their game, they
joined their other teammates for lunch, and they went
to the movies.
If we remove the dependent clause “after the two soccer
players lost their game,” we have a compound sentence.
The dependent clause makes this sentence compound-
complex.
The man believed in the system, and he knew that
justice would prevail after the murderer was sent to
jail.

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Sentence • Declarative

Types • Imperative
• Exclamatory.
• Interrogative

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 Sentence DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
• A declarative sentence makes a statement, gives an
structures explanation, conveys a fact or provides information.
• This type of sentence is also known as a declarative
statement, as it may be considered a declaration
expressing a fact.
• The noun comes before the verb, namely the subject
and predicate, in a declarative sentence.
• Writers predominantly use the declarative sentence to
convey information.
• A declarative sentence is punctuated with a period. (.)

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 Sentence DECLARATIVE SENTENCES – Examples

structures • The sun comes up in the morning.

• My neighbor’s dog chases cars.
• Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen.

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 Sentence IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
• An imperative sentence consists of a command,
structures demand, instruction or request.
• These may seem like sentence fragments as the
subject of an imperative sentence, the person being
spoken to, appears to be omitted.
• In fact, the subject, you, is implied or understood.
• An imperative sentence often begins with the main
verb, and is a complete sentence in composition.
• An imperative sentence is usually punctuated with a
period (.)

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 Sentence IMPERATIVE SENTENCES – Examples

structures • Give me the money.

• Pass the potatoes.
• Be quiet.

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 Sentence EXCALMATORY SENTENCES
• An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses
structures extreme emotion such as surprise, excitement, fear or
anger.
• If the sentence is shouted with extreme emotion, it is
an exclamatory sentence.
• Usually, an exclamatory sentence is punctuated with an
exclamation point or exclamation mark. (!)

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 Sentence EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES – Examples

structures • Run for your lives!

• The tiger is loose!
• Surprise!
• How you have grown!
• What big ears you have!
• What a mess!

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 Sentence INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
• An interrogative sentence is a question, a request, or a
structures plea for more information.
• An interrogative sentence usually begins with an
auxiliary verb or an adverb, with the subject placed
later in the sentence. Words such as who, what, where,
when, how, why, did, would, could, etc., often
begin interrogative sentences.
• An interrogative sentence is punctuated with a question
mark. (?)

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 Sentence INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES – Examples

structures • Would you take out the trash?

• How did you get so dirty?
• Where is the remote control?

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The use of • Commas and periods are the most frequently used
punctuation marks. Commas customarily indicate a

comma (,) brief pause; they're not as final as periods.

• Overuse and underuse of the comma are both
problems that students have.
• Commas should be used for clarity; that is, to separate
items that would be confusing if they were not
separated.

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 Rule 1.

The use of Use commas to separate words and word groups in a simple series
of three or more items.

comma (,) Example: My estate goes to my husband, son, daughter-in-law, and

nephew.
Note: When the last comma in a series comes
before and or or (after daughter-in-law in the above example), it is
known as the Oxford comma. Most newspapers and magazines
drop the Oxford comma in a simple series, apparently feeling it's
unnecessary. However, omission of the Oxford comma can
sometimes lead to misunderstandings.
Example: We had coffee, cheese and crackers and grapes.
Adding a comma after crackers makes it clear that cheese and
crackers represents one dish. In cases like this, clarity demands the
Oxford comma.
We had coffee, cheese and crackers, and grapes.
Fiction and nonfiction books generally prefer the Oxford comma.
Writers must decide Oxford or no Oxford and not switch back and
forth, except when omitting the Oxford comma could cause
confusion as in the cheese and crackers example.
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 Rule 2.
The use of Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the order

comma (,)
of the adjectives is interchangeable.
Example: He is a strong, healthy man.
We could also say healthy, strong man.
Example: We stayed at an expensive summer resort.
We would not say summer expensive resort, so no comma.
Another way to determine if a comma is needed is to
mentally put and between the two adjectives. If the result
still makes sense, add the comma. In the examples
above, a strong and healthy man makes sense, but an
expensive and summer resort does not.

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 Rule 3a.
The use of Many inexperienced writers run two independent clauses

comma (,)
together by using a comma instead of a period. This
results in the dreaded run-on sentence or, more
technically, a comma splice.
Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the door.
There are several simple remedies:
Correct: He walked all the way home. He shut the door.
Correct: After he walked all the way home, he shut the
door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

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 Rule 3b.
The use of In sentences where two independent clauses are joined by

comma (,)
connectors such as and, or, but, etc., put a comma at the
end of the first clause.
Incorrect: He walked all the way home and he shut the
door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.
Some writers omit the comma if the clauses are both
quite short:
Example: I paint and he writes.

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 Rule 3c.
The use of If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb,

comma (,)
a comma is generally unnecessary.
Example: He thought quickly but
still did not answer correctly.
But sometimes a comma in this situation is necessary to
avoid confusion.
Confusing: I saw that she was busy and prepared to leave.
Clearer with comma: I saw that she was busy, and
prepared to leave.
Without a comma, the reader is liable to think that "she"
was the one who was prepared to leave.

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Rule 4a.
When starting a sentence with a dependent clause, use a
The use of
comma after it. comma (,)
Example: If you are not sure about this, let me know now.
Follow the same policy with introductory phrases.
Example: Having finally arrived in town, we went shopping.
However, if the introductory phrase is clear and brief (three or
four words), the comma is optional.
Example: When in town we go shopping.
But always add a comma if it would avoid confusion.
Example: Last Sunday, evening classes were canceled. (The
comma prevents a misreading.)
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Rule 4a.
When an introductory phrase begins with a preposition, a
The use of
comma may not be necessary even if the phrase contains comma (,)
more than three or four words.
Example: Into the sparkling crystal ball he gazed.
If such a phrase contains more than one preposition, a comma
may be used unless a verb immediately follows the phrase.
Examples:
Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand
Avenue, the mayor's mansion stands proudly.
Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand
Avenue is the mayor's mansion.

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 Rule 4b.
The use of A comma is usually unnecessary when the sentence starts

comma (,)
with an independent clause followed by a dependent
clause.
Example: Let me know now if you are not sure about this.

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 Rule 5.
The use of Use commas to set off nonessential words, clauses, and
phrases

comma (,) Incorrect: Jill who is my sister shut the door.

Correct: Jill, who is my sister, shut the door.
Incorrect: The man knowing it was late hurried home.
Correct: The man, knowing it was late, hurried home.
In the preceding examples, note the comma
after sister and late. Nonessential words, clauses, and
phrases that occur midsentence must be enclosed by
commas. The closing comma is called an appositive comma.
Many writers forget to add this important comma. Following
are two instances of the need for an appositive comma with
one or more nouns.
Incorrect: My best friend, Joe arrived.
Correct: My best friend, Joe, arrived.
Incorrect: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper were on
the table.
Correct: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper, were on the
table.
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 Rule 6.

The use of If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description

that follows is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by

comma (,)
commas.
Examples:
Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident.
If we already know which Freddy is meant, the description is not
essential.

The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.

We do not know which boy is meant without further description;
therefore, no commas are used.
This leads to a persistent problem. Look at the following sentence:
Example: My brother Bill is here.
Now, see how adding two commas changes that sentence's
meaning:
Example: My brother, Bill, is here.
Careful writers and readers understand that the first sentence
means I have more than one brother. The commas in the second
sentence mean that Bill is my only brother.
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 Rule 7.
The use of Use a comma after certain words that introduce a

comma (,)
sentence, such as well, yes, why, hello, hey,etc.
Examples:
Why, I can't believe this!
No, you can't have a dollar.

Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the

sentence flow (nevertheless, after all, by the way, on the
other hand, however, etc.).
Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this.

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 Rule 8.
The use of Use commas to set off the name, nickname, term of

comma (,)
endearment, or title of a person directly addressed.
Examples:
Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?
Yes, old friend, I will.
Good day, Captain.

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 Rule 9.
The use of Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the

comma (,)
year, and—what most people forget!—always put one
after the year, also.
Example: It was in the Sun's June 5, 2003, edition.

No comma is necessary for just the month and year.

Example: It was in a June 2003 article.

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 Rule 10.
The use of Use a comma to separate a city from its state, and

comma (,)
remember to put one after the state, also.
Example: I'm from the Akron, Ohio, area.

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 Rule 11.
The use of Traditionally, if a person's name is followed by Sr. or Jr., a

comma (,)
comma follows the last name: Martin Luther King, Jr. This
comma is no longer considered mandatory. However, if a
comma does precede Sr. or Jr., another comma must
follow the entire name when it appears midsentence.
Correct: Al Mooney Sr. is here.
Correct: Al Mooney, Sr., is here.
Incorrect: Al Mooney, Sr. is here.

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 Rule 12.
The use of Similarly, use commas to enclose degrees or titles used

comma (,)
with names.
Example: Al Mooney, M.D., is here.

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 Rule 13.
The use of Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations.

comma (,) Examples:

He said, "I don't care."
"Why," I asked, "don't you care?"
This rule is optional with one-word quotations.
Example: He said, "Stop.“

If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they

reported, Dana insisted, or a similar attribution, end the
quoted material with a comma, even if it is only one word.
Examples:
"I don't care," he said.
"Stop," he said.

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 Rule 13.
The use of If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a

comma (,)
sentence, it might not need a comma.
Examples:
Is "I don't care" all you can say to me?
Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.

If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question

mark replaces a comma.
Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.

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The use of Rule 14.

comma (,)
Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.
Example: I can go, can't I?

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The use of Rule 15.

comma (,)
Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.
Example: That is my money, not yours.

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The use of Rule 16.

comma (,)
Use a comma before and after certain introductory words
or terms, such as namely, that is, i.e., e.g., and for instance,
when they are followed by a series of items.
Example: You may be required to bring many items, e.g.,
sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

A comma should precede the term etc. Many authorities

also recommend a comma after etc. when it is placed
midsentence.
Example: Sleeping bags, pans, warm clothing, etc., are in
the tent.

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Apostrophe Proper use of the apostrophe is the mark of an intelligent
and well-educated writer. The apostrophe is most often

(‘) used to indicate possession. It is only rarely used to create

a plural.
• Using apostrophes in the wrong way is one of the most
common punctuation errors for native speakers of
English as well as for learners.

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Apostrophe If you remember these three simple rules, you will avoid
mistakes:

(‘) • We use apostrophes to show who something belongs

to, e.g. This is Tom’s hat.
• We also use them for contracted forms, to show that
something is missing, e.g. It’s raining.
• We do not use them for plurals!! If you are in an
English-speaking country, you will see many signs in
shops and cafés advertising ‘tomato’s’, ‘pizza’s’,
‘sandwich’s’, etc.

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Apostrophe
• We usually add ’s to singular words to show who or what
something belongs to: my mum’s car, the dog’s tail, Harry’s
school.

(‘) • We also add ’s to plural words that don’t end in ‘s’: women’s
books, people’s opinions.
• For plurals that do end in ‘s’, we simply put an apostrophe at the
end of the word: the animals’ owner, my parents’ house.
• For singular words ending in ‘s’, you can add either ’s or – for
more formal writing – just the apostrophe: Tess’s phone number,
Ben Holmes’s friend, Dickens’ novels.
• We often use apostrophes at the end of the names of jobs when
we are talking about the place where they work: go to the
doctor’s, the greengrocer’s.
• In contracted forms, the apostrophe shows where one or more
letters has been left out. For example, I’d can mean I had or I
would, and they’re means they are. These forms are not suitable
for very formal writing, where it is better to write the words in
full.
• Another very common contraction is n’t, which is short for ‘not’
and is used to make negative words such
as isn’t, wouldn’t, and haven’t
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Apostrophe it’s and who’s.
• These are contractions and are short for it/who

(‘) is or it/who has:

– It’s very cold in here.
– It’s been a long time since we met.
– Who’s coming to the park?
– Who’s got the camera?
• For talking about possession, we use its and whose:
– Look at that chair – its leg has broken.
– Whose shoes are these?

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 Comma The joining of two independent clauses with only a
comma is another common problem among student

splices and
writers. Students should learn that for two independent
clauses to be joined, they require a comma and a

run-on
coordinating conjunction or simply a semicolon.

sentences

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 Comma
Run-on sentence
A run-on sentence occurs when two or more complete

splices and
sentences (independent clauses) are joined with no
punctuation.
Joseph Cornell was an innovative American artist known for

run-on his shadow boxes and collages his art became more famous
after his death in 1972.

sentences Comma splice

A comma splice occurs when two or more complete
sentences are joined only with a comma, which is not
strong enough punctuation. This is an example of a
comma splice:
Joseph Cornell was an innovative American artist known for
his shadow boxes and collages, his art became more famous
after his death in 1972.

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 Comma
Add a period and a capital letter
Add a period and a capital letter to separate the

splices and
sentences.
Joseph Cornell was an innovative American artist known for

run-on
his shadow boxes and collages. His art became more
famous after his death in 1972.

sentences Add a comma and a coordinating conjunction

Add a comma and a coordinating
conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are easy to
remember as F.A.N.B.O.Y.S.—for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
so.
Joseph Cornell was an innovative American artist known for
his shadow boxes and collages, but his art became more
famous after his death in 1972.

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 Comma Add a semicolon
Add a semicolon if the sentences are closely related.

splices and Joseph Cornell was an innovative American artist known for
his shadow boxes and collages; his art became more famous

run-on after his death in 1972.

sentences

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 Comma Add a “transitional word”
Add a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb—also known as

splices and a “transitional word”. When using a transitional word, the

comma should be placed immediately after the transition.

run-on Joseph Cornell was an innovative American artist known for

his shadow boxes and collages; however, his art became

sentences more famous after his death in 1972.

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Add a subordinating conjunction
Add a subordinating conjunction—also known as a “dependent word”—to the beginning or the middle of
the sentence.
Even though Joseph Cornell was an innovative American artist known for his shadow boxes and collages, his
artwork became more famous after his death in 1972.
– In the example above, the comma stays when the conjunction "even though" is added to the beginning of the
sentence.
Joseph Cornell was an innovative American artist because he used objects and items most people would throw
away in his work.
– In this example, the comma is removed when the conjunction "because” is added to the middle of the sentence.

Comma splices and

run-on sentences
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Spelling The rules of spelling are important to learn, even at this
stage of a student’s development.

Using I Before E
• Use i before e, except after c, or when sounded as "a"
as in "neighbor" and "weigh."
• Examples: believe, chief, piece, and thief; deceive,
receive, weigh, and freight
• Common exceptions: efficient, weird, height, neither,
ancient, caffeine, foreign

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Spelling
The rules of spelling are important to learn, even at this
stage of a student’s development.

Dropping the Final E

• Drop the final e before a suffix beginning with
a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) but not before a suffix beginning
with a consonant.
• Examples:
ride + ing = riding
guide + ance = guidance
hope + ing = hoping
entire + ly = entirely
like + ness = likeness
arrange + ment = arrangement
• Exceptions: truly, noticeable

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Spelling
The rules of spelling are important to learn, even at this
stage of a student’s development.

Changing a Final Y to I
• Change a final y to i before a suffix, unless the suffix
begins with i.
• Examples:
defy + ance = defiance
party + es = parties
pity + ful = pitiful
try + es = tries
try + ing = trying
copy + ing = copying
occupy + ing = occupying
• Common exceptions: journeying, memorize

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Spelling
The rules of spelling are important to learn, even at this stage
of a student’s development.

Doubling a Final Consonant

• Double a final single consonant before a suffix beginning
with a vowel when both of these conditions exist:
(a) a single vowel precedes the consonant;
(b) the consonant ends an accented syllable or a one-
syllable word.
• Examples:
stop + ing = stopping
admit + ed = admitted
occur + ence = occurrence
stoop + ing = stooping
benefit + ed = benefited
delight + ful = delightful

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That’s it!

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