Antennas:

Subject: Electro Magnetic Field Theory.

Course In charge: Engr. M.Asghar Daudani.

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Antenna:
 An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts Electric Power into
Radio waves, and vice versa.
 It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver.
 In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an oscillating radio-frequency
electric current to the antenna's terminals and the antenna radiates the energy
from the current as Electromagnetic waves (radio waves).
 In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic
wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a
receiver to be amplified.
 Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors
("elements"), electrically connected (often through a transmission line) to the
receiver or transmitter.
 An oscillating current of electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter
will create an oscillating magnetic field around the antenna elements, while
the charge of the electrons also creates an oscillating electric field along the
elements.
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 These time-varying fields, when created in the proper
proportions, radiate away from the antenna into space as a
moving transverse electromagnetic field wave.
 Conversely, during reception, the oscillating electric and
magnetic fields of an incoming radio wave exert force on the
electrons in the antenna elements, causing them to move back
and forth, creating oscillating currents in the antenna.

 Antennas may also include reflective or directive elements

or surfaces not connected to the transmitter or receiver,
such as parasitic elements, parabolic reflectors or horns,
which serve to direct the radio waves into a beam or other
desired radiation pattern.
 Antennas can be designed to transmit or receive radio
waves in all directions equally (Omni directional antennas),
or transmit them in a beam in a particular direction, and
receive from that one direction only (Directional or High
gain antennas).
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Antennas (Kennedy):

Following are the main parameters related to the Antenna’s

Band width: The term band width refers to the range of

frequencies in which the antenna will radiate effectively i-e
the antenna will perform satisfactorily throughout this range
of frequencies, when the antenna power drops to ½ λ (3 d B),
the upper and lower extremities of these frequencies have
been reached and the antenna no longer performs
satisfactorily.

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Beam width: The angles created by comparing the half power points
(3 d B) on the main radiation lobe to its maximum power point.

 In a given figure the beam angle is 30°, which is the sum of the
two angles created at the points, where the field strength drops
to 0.707 (field strength is measured in µ V/m) of the maximum
voltage at the centre of the lobe. (These points are called as the
half-power points).

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Polarization: Polarization of an antenna refers to the direction in
space of the electric field (Electric vector) portion of the electromagnetic
wave being radiated by the transmitting system (Fig: 9-10 Kennedy).

 Low frequency antenna are vertically polarized because of ground effect

(reflected wave) and physical construction method.

 HF antenna’s are generally horizontally polarized.

 Horizontal polarization is the more desired of the two, because of its

rejection to noise made by people, which is for the most part vertically
polarized.

Fundamentals of Electromagnetic waves:

 Electromagnetic waves are energy propagated through free space at

the velocity of light, which is approximately 300 meters per µ second.

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Antennas (Roddy & Coolen):

 The antenna is a structure that is generally metallic object, often a wire

or group of wires used to convert high frequency current into
electromagnetic waves and vice versa.

 Antenna may be constructed from conducting wires or rods, as

example T.V. antenna.

 The Spacing, Length and Shape of the antenna are related to the
wave length of the desired transmitter frequency, i-e Mechanical length
is inversely proportional to the Numerical value of the frequency.

T=1/f (Where; T = Time in seconds = frequency in Hz).

1 MHz = 1 / T => 1 MHz = 1 / (1 x 10 6)

=> 1 MHz = 1.0 µ s => 1 MHz = 300 m
Maximum power achieved when the source matching the load. 12
Radiation pattern depends upon;

 Antenna length measured in wave length.

 Power loss.

 Terminations at the ends (If any).

 Thickness of the wire (some of them having loss less, whose diameter
is infinitely small).

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i. Resonant antennas: In which the current distribution exists
as a standing-wave pattern. An ordinary T.V antenna is an
example of resonant antenna, usually cut to one half-wave
length, which gives it its resonant properties.

High Q resonant circuit has a very narrow Bandwidth.

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ii. Non-Resonant antennas:

 In which the current distribution exists as a travelling wave pattern. Mainly used
for short-wave communication links.

a. Long wire antenna:

 The long wire antenna is just that a wire of several wave lengths in length that
is suspended at some height above the earth.

 The wire is driven at one end and has a resistive termination at the remote
ends which is matched to the characteristic impedance of the line at that end.

 This forms a transmission line with a ground return and a matched termination.

 When an alternating current wave is transmitted down this line towards the
terminated end, about half of the energy is radiated into space.

 Since there is no reflection at the far end, no return wave exists and no
standing waves appear on the wire, regardless of its length-to-wavelength
ratio.
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 Of the energy not radiated, a small amount is dissipated in the wire and the
remainder is dissipated in the terminating resistance.

 The radiation pattern shown would be true for any direction at right angles to
the wire, if the wire were mounted in free space. (The long wire is shown in
Fig: 15-22a, with its horizontal radiation pattern).

 Usually it is a fraction of a wave length above the ground and the ground
reflection cause most of the energy to be radiated upward, so that the vertical
pattern would be a single lobe of twice the strength of the horizontal lobes.

 Since no standing waves exists, the antenna has no resonances and as long
as the length of wire lies in the range 2 λ to 10 λ, its characteristics remains
relatively constant for all frequencies in that range.

 It is thus used as a broadband antenna for low-cost point-to-point

communications, especially in the HF band from 3 to 30 MHz.

 The upward tilt of the pattern lends itself to sky wave propagation in this
band.
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b. Rhombic antenna:

 The rhombic antenna takes its name from its diamond shaped lay-out.

 It is an array of four interconnected long wire antennas laid out in the manner as
shown in figure 15-22b.

 Each of the four legs has the same length and lies in the range from 2 λ to 10 λ.

 The transmission line feeds one end and transmits an un-reflected current wave
down each side towards the resistive termination at the far end.

 The length of the sides and the angle Φ are interrelated and must be carefully
chosen, so that the side lobes cancel properly, leaving only a single main lobe
lying along the main axis of the rhombus.

 Again ground reflections cause the lobe to be tilted upward into the sky and the
amount of tilt is a function of the length of the legs.

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Hertz Antenna: A hertz antenna is simply an isolated half-wave dipole
antenna. Here isolated means that the antenna is mounted away from
all objects, so that its performance, radiation pattern etc will not be
altered by radiation or reflection from such objects.

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Vertical Antenna: There are two types:

i. Ground reflections:

 The ground will act as an almost perfect reflecting plane

for any antenna placed near its surface, and an apparent
mirror image of the antenna will appear to be located
immediately beneath the surface below the antenna.

 From the given figure (15-17), which shows a distinct

observer receiving a direct wave from a point on the
antenna and reflected wave, which appears to come from
the corresponding point on the image antenna.

 Because of the interaction between the direct wave and

reflected waves, the radiation polar pattern is drastically
modified and appears to be the vector sum of radiation
from two separate antenna’s the real and the image. 25
 The amount of interaction is dependent on how far above
the ground the antenna is placed.

 If the effective height is several wave lengths, then

practically no interaction will occur and the antenna may
be considered to be mounted in free space.

 For height up to a few wave lengths, then the reflections

must be considered and the antenna and its image act as
a phased array of two antennas.

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ii. Ground Vertical Antenna / Quarter wave / Marconi Antenna:

 Most of the Medium frequency broadcast antenna falls into this

category, as VHF mobile-whip antenna, made up of Vertical
mast, pole or rod, which forms main radiating conductor.

 Placed where good electrical ground is available.

 Good locations marshy fields and sea cast flats.

 If poor, artificial grounding is created.

 Its lower end is connected to an earth ground of good

conductivity, behaves very much like a vertical ½ λ antenna.

 Since high Power transmitter may generate potentials of

several hundreds kv on the antenna structure, so that high
quality insulators must be required.
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15-13 Folded Elements:

 Previously discussed antennas are single conductor radiator, however

if each conductor is twinned with a second conductor, insulated from,
but closely parallel to it and connected together at the voltage node
points, then a similar current pattern will be induced in the second
conductor.

 The radiation pattern will be exactly the same as for the single
conductor antenna, but the radiation resistance will be different,
namely just four times that produced by the single conductor.

 Favored as the driving element of VHF dipole arrays because it can be

made very expensive with self supporting tubing and provides a higher
terminal impedance.
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Loop and Ferrite receiving Antenna:
i. Loop Antenna:

 The loop antenna is made up of one or more turns of wire on a frame, which
may be rectangular or circular and is very much smaller than one wave-length
across.

 This antenna is popular for two reasons:

i. Relatively compact for portable receivers.

ii. Quite directive to use with direction finding equipment.

 Loop will radiate equally well in all directions within its own plane.

 Loop antenna made of several turns of wire around a rectangular Frame were
popular earlier model broad caster receivers, but now replaced with ferrite-rod
antennas.
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The loop aligned for maximum signal strength is;

 Mag: Flux linkage = B A N

B = Magnetic flux density in Tesla

A = Loop area in m 2
N = Number of turns in loop

 The induced emf is given by faraday’s law;

 As the rate of change of flux linkages which for a wave of

angular frequency in ω gives;

V s = ω B A N - - - - - - - - - (15 - 42)
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 When the loop is turned by means of an external capacitor to the received
frequency; the voltage at the capacitor terminal is magnified by the circuit
Q to give;

V max = V s Q = ω B A N Q - - - - - - - - - - (15 - 43)

 Since the loop is much smaller than received wave length, the induced voltage
may be quite small.

 It may be increased by increasing any factor of Q.

 The Q is determined by the desired selectivity.

 The area must be kept small.

 Increase in number of turns increases the coil inductance and changes the Q
and even change in B changes the value of Q.

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ii. Ferrite-rod Antenna:
 The ferrite rod antenna is made by winding a coil of wire on a ferrite rod
(fig 15.21 b).

 Ferrites are materials that exhibit the properties of ferromagnetism.

 The materials exhibit a high relative permeability in the same manner as
magnetic materials do, but unlike the ferromagnetic metals, they also
have a high bulk resistivity.
 A high length-to-diameter ratio for the rod gives a high permeability
which is desired.
 Positioning the coil on the core is critical as well, since the effective
permeability is a function of position on the rod ranging from a maximum
at the centre to a minimum at either end.
 The coil is usually placed near the quarter point, allowing adjustment in
either direction to the coil inductance.
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 The coil of wire on the ferrite rod is basically a modified loop antenna, so
that the induced maximum emf appearing at its terminals is given by ;

V s = ω B A N F μ r - - - - - - - - - (15 - 44)

 F = Modifying factor appropriate for coil length (ranging from unity for
short coils to about 0.7 for one that extends the full length of the rod)
μ r = effective relative permeability of the rod.
A = Rod cross-sectional area.

 An expression for the effective length of a ferrite rod antenna can be

derived by combining eqs (B.4), (B.8), (B.22) & (15.44) to obtained;

ℓ eff = (2 π A N N F μ r ) / λ - - - - (15 - 45)

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