Steel

CE 2330
Jul – Nov 2017
IIT Tirupati
 Outline
• Production
• Introduction to steel metallurgy – The Iron-
Carbon phase diagram
• Heat treatment of steel
• Classification of steel
• Structural and reinforcing steel
• Mechanical properties
 Production of steel
• Extraction of iron ore (haematite and magnetite)
• Magnetic extraction of iron
• Pelletisation and firing to obtain processed ore
containing ~ 65% iron
• Blast furnace process to produce ‘pig’ iron
• Further refinement to remove excess Carbon
• Molten steel is then cast into ingots or
continuously cast into the desired shape
Schematic depiction of steel production
 Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2®CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2+C®2CO
and iron ore 3CO+Fe2O3®2Fe+3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3®CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 +Al2O3®slag
 Microstructure of steel
• At room temperature, stable form of pure iron is
ferrite, or α iron  BCC
• When T > 912 oC, ferrite is transformed into
Austenite, or γ iron  FCC
• Phase diagram between Fe and C should be
studied
• Relevant portion of diagram – till 6.7 wt. % C
• Carbon is an interstitial impurity in iron, and
forms solid solutions with the forms of iron
 IRON-CARBON (Fe-C) PHASE DIAGRAM

• 2 important T(°C)
1600
points d
-Eutectic (A): 1400 L
L  g + Fe3C g g+L
1200 A L+Fe3C
1148°C
-Eutectoid (B): (austenite)

Fe 3C (cementite)
R S
g  a + Fe 3C 1000 g g
g g g+Fe 3C
800
a B 727°C = eutectoid
T
R S
600 a+Fe 3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) 0.77 4.30 Co, wt% C
120mm
Ceutectoid

Result: Pearlite = Fe 3C (cementite-hard)

alternating layers of
a and Fe3C phases. a (ferrite-soft)
 In the presence of alloying
elements

• The temperature at which eutectoid

transformation occurs may change
• The Carbon concentration at the eutectoid
may also change
 Heat treatments of steel
• Annealing – Slow cooling to room temperature
after heating to austenitic temperatures and
holding for a specified time; purposes – grain
refinement, softening, removal of internal stresses,
etc.
• Normalizing – Air cooling to room temperature
from above austenite temperature; produces
uniform fine-grained microstructure; leads to high
fracture toughness
 Heat treatments (contd.)
• Hardening – Quenching or rapid cooling of
austenitic steel; martensite, hard and brittle,
is produced
• Tempering – Follows hardening, to reduce
the internal strains caused by quenching;
increases ductility and toughness
 Steel

Low Alloy High Alloy

low carbon med carbon high carbon
<0.25wt%C 0.25-0.6wt%C 0.6-1.4wt%C

heat austentitic
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
 Uses of steel in construction
• Structural steel
– Plates, bars, pipes, structural shapes, etc.
• Cold-formed steel
– Studs, trusts, roofing, cladding
• Fastening products
– Bolts, nuts, washers
• Reinforcing steel
– Rebar for concrete
• Miscellaneous
– Forms, hardware, etc.
 Structural Steel
• C content in the range of 0.15 – 0.27%
• Alloyed with a small amount of Cu and Mn
• Many standard shapes available
• Most commonly used grade – 250 MPa
(structural carbon steel)
Commonly used structural steel shapes
 Types of reinforcement
• Uncoated steel
– Mild steel ribbed bars
– High Yield Strength Deformed (HYSD) bars
– Cold-twisted deformed (CTD) bars (TORsteel)
– Thermomechanically treated (TMT) or Quenched and
Self-Tempered (QST) steel
– Stainless steel
– Prestressing steel
• Coated steel
– Epoxy coated steel
– Galvanized steel
• Fiber-reinforced Polymer (FRP) bars / laminates
IS 1786 – High strength deformed steel bars and wires for concrete
reinforcement - Specification
 Number  the specified 0.2% proof stress
D  enhanced Ductility (i.e., with enhanced specified
minimum percentage elongation)
S  enhanced Strength ratio = 1.25
Chemical composition
–Consistency
–Weldability at site (by conventional means)
• Nominal
– a value existing in name only
– NOT real value
– a convenient designation rather than
calculated by data analysis or
following usual rounding methods
– an accepted condition
– a goal or an approximation
 Cold-Twisted Deformed (CTD) bars
CTD bars are produced by twisting the steel bars in “cold”
condition, causing work hardening.
– Higher strength and lower elongation
– Ribs improve the bonding with the concrete
Chemical Composition
– Carbon: 0.20-0.35%
– Manganese: 0.40-0.80%
– Phosphorus & Sulphur
combined: 0.120% max
Corrosion is an issue
Cold working process can produce…
anisotropy in polycrystalline metals due to the
deformation of the grains.
before rolling after rolling

rolling direction
Callister
235 mm
Anisotropic – elongated
Isotropic – and oriented grains
equiaxed grains
CTD bars are no longer used due to poor
corrosion resistance
 Thermomechanically Treated (TMT)
or Quenched and Self-Tempered (QST) Bars
After hot rolling to the desired
size and shape, the low carbon
steel bars are quenched with
water and then cooled.
Quenching converts the
surface layer to (hard)
martensite while the core
remains as austenite.
As the bar cools, heat flows
from the core to the surface
layer turning it to tempered
martensite. The core
transforms to ductile ferrite-
pearlite.
Varghese
Yield Strength = 520-600
N/mm2 and Total Elongation =
18 - 30%.
Thermomechanically Treated (TMT)
or Quenched and Self-Tempered
(QST) Bars
 Thermomechanically Treated (TMT)
or Quenched and Self-Tempered (QST) Bars
• Advantages
– Low cost, high strength
– High ductility (good for earthquake regions)
– Elongation around 18-30%
– Excellent weldability (due to lower carbon content)
– No cold working (better corrosion resistance)
– Uniformity
• Identification/Selection of TMT/QST bars
– Select only if the hardened periphery and softer core are uniform and
concentric in nature
– Ideal if 20 to 30% of bar cross-sectional area is hardened periphery
– Not ideal if >50% of bar cross-sectional area is hardened periphery
(ductility reduces)
 Corrosion Resistant Steel (CRS)
TMT reinforcement
• Bars with small quantities of copper and chromium,
and higher than usual percentage of phosphorus.
– Carbon – 0.15%
– Manganese – 1%
– Sulphur – 0.04%
– Phosphorous – 0.10%
– Silicon – 0.45%
– Corrosion resistant elements – 0.50% (minimum)
 Stainless steel reinforcement
• Stainless steels are alloys that contain at least 12% of chromium
• Other alloying elements such as nickel and molybdenum may also be
present
• Chromium oxide layer forms on the stainless steel surface to prevent
corrosion
• These steels offer good resistance to corrosion as long as the passive
film can be maintained

Stainless steel rebar on a

bridge deck of the 407
Highway, Toronto.
Do we need to adopt this in
India?
If yes, for what type of
structures?
 Prestressing steel reinforcement –
7-wire strands
• High strength (1860
MPa)
– Approximately 4.5
times more!
• Low relaxation
• Necessary for long
span construction
– Cable stayed,
suspension,
prestressed concrete
applications
• Unsheathed and
sheathed strands
 Large infrastructure systems are built using these high-strength
Metro Railways steel cables and strands

Elevated highways & flyovers

Bridges over seawater

Power plants
 Typical cost comparison of steel
rebars
• In 1999…
Steel Rebar Type Ratio
Conventional uncoated steel 1
Epoxy-coated steel 1.33
Galvanized steel 2
Solid stainless steel 6 to 7
Stainless steel clad steel 2.5
http://www.concreteconstruction.net/Images/Choices%20in%20Corrosion-Resistant%20Rebar_tcm45-347334.pdf
 Structural Requirements
• Tensile strength
• Bond strength (with concrete)
• Ductility – 10% elongation is considered
adequate; C content should be controlled
• Bendability – Design of ribs should ensure
minimizing of notch effect
• Weldability – High C content bars (>
0.25%) are unsuitable
 ..contd.
• Fatigue strength
• Corrosion resistance
• Fire resistance – goes down with C content