Chapter 5 Relations and Functions

Unit 4
Functions:

 Cartesian Products and Relations.

 Functions: Plain and One-to-One.
 Onto Functions: Stirling’s Numbers of the Second Kind,
 Special Functions,
 The Pigeonhole Principle.
 Self Learning Exercise: Function Composition and
Inverse Functions.
 5.1. Cartesian products and relations
 Definition 5.1. The Cartesian product of A and B
is denoted by AB and equals
{(a, b)aA and bB}.
The elements of AB are ordered pairs. The
elements of A1A2…An are ordered n-tuples.
 AB=AB
 Ex 5.1. A={2, 3, 4}, B={4, 5}.
 What are AB, BA, B2 and B3?
But, in general A  B  B  A. And
A1  A2  An  {(a1 , a 2 , , a n )| a i  Ai ,1  i  n}.
Ex 5.1. A={2, 3, 4}, B={4, 5}.
What are AB, BA, B2 and B3?
Tree diagrams for the Cartesian product
Trees are convenient tools for enumeration.
Ex. 5.4 At the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, women play
at most 3 sets in a match. The winner is the first to win two sets.
In how many ways can a match be won?
 Problem
Microprocessors are tested individually and are labelled
defective (D) or Good (G). Construct a tree diagram
describing sample space for this testing process which is
continue until either two defective or five microprocessors are
tested in total.
Solution:
16 outcomes
 Relations
 Definition 5.2. Any subsets of AB is called a relation from A to
B.
Any subset of AA is called a binary relation on A.
 Ex 5.5. The following are some of relations from A={2,3,4} to
B={4,5}:
(a) ,
(b) {(2, 4)},
(c) {(2, 4), (2, 5)},
(d) {(2, 4), (3, 4), (4, 4)},
(e) {(2, 4), (3, 4), (4, 5)},
(f) AB.
 For finite sets A and B with A=m and B=n, there are 2mn
relations from A to B. There are also 2mn relations from B to A.
 For any set A, A=. Likewise,   A =.
Problem
1. Let A = {a,b,c,d} and B ={ w,x,y}
 Give any three relations from A to B
 Give any three relations on A
 |P(A X B)| ?
 Theorem 5.1 For any set A, B, C  U :
(a) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B )  ( A  C )
( b) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B )  ( A  C )
(c) ( A  B )  C  ( A  C )  ( B  C )
(d) ( A  B )  C = ( A  C )  ( B  C )

Proof of (a) : For any a, b  U , (a, b)  A  ( B  C )  a  A 

b  ( B  C )  a  A, b  B, b  C  (a, b)  ( A  B),
( a, b)  ( A  C )  ( a, b)  ( A  B )  ( A  C )
5.2. Functions: Plain and one-to-one
 Function is a special kind of relation
 Def. 5.3 For nonempty sets, A,B, a function, or mapping, f from A
to B, denoted f:A  B, is a relation from A to B in which every
element of A appears exactly once as the first component of an
ordered pair in the relation.
 Definition 5.3. f: AB, A is called domain and B is co domain. f(A)
is called the range of f.
 For (a, b)f, b is called image of a under f whereas a is a pre-
image of b.
Example
 Example
Ex. 5.10 (a ) floor function
f ( x)  x   the greatest integer less than or equal to x
3.8  3,  3.8  4,  3  3
(b) ceiling function
f ( x)  x   the least integer greater th an or equal to x
3.8  4,  3.8  3,  3  3
(c) trunc function
trunc( x)  the integer part of x
trunc(3.8)  3, trunc(3.8)  3, trunc(3)  3
properties
 For finite sets A and B with A=m and B=n, there are nm
functions from A to B.
 Definition 5.5. f: AB, is one-to-one or injective, if each
element of B appears at most once as the image of an element
of A.
 If so, we must have AB. Stated in another way, f:
AB, is one-to-one if and only if for all a1, a2A,
f(a1)=f(a2) a1=a2.
 Ex 5.13. f(x)=3x+7 for xR is one-to-one. But g(x)=x4-x is
not. (Why?)
example
Number of one-to-one functions
 Ex 5.14. A={1, 2, 3}, B={1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
 there are 215 relations from A to B
 and 53 functions from A to B.
 we have P(5, 3) one-to-one functions.
 Given finite sets A and B with A=m and B=n, there are
P(n, m) one-to-one functions from A to B.
Definition
Example
Example
Example
Theorem 5.2.
 Let f: AB with A1, A2A. Then
(a) f(A1A2)=f(A1)f(A2),
(b) f(A1A2)f(A1)f(A2),
(c) f(A1A2)=f(A1)f(A2) when f is one-to-one.
common notations

(a) Z=the set of integers={0,1,-1,2,-1,3,-3,...}

(b) N=the set of nonnegative integers or natural
numbers
(c) Z+=the set of positive integers
(d) Q=the set of rational numbers={a/b| a,b is
integer, b not zero}
(e) Q+=the set of positive rational numbers
(f) Q*=the set of nonzero rational numbers
(g) R=the set of real numbers
(h) R+=the set of positive real numbers
(i) R*=the set of nonzero real numbers
(j) C=the set of complex numbers
5.3. Onto Functions: Stirling numbers of the
second kind
 Definition 5.9. f: AB, is onto, or surjective, if f(A)=B-
that is, for all bB there is at least one aA with f(a)=B.
If so, we must have AB.
 Ex 5.19. The function f: RR defined by f(x)=x3 is an
onto function. But the function g: RR defined by
f(x)=x2 is not an onto function.
 Ex 5.20. The function f: ZZ defined by f(x)=3x+1 is
not an onto function. But the function g: QQ defined
by g(x)=3x+1 is an onto function. The function h: RR
defined by h(x)=3x+1 is an onto function.
Example 5.21
The number of onto functions
 Ex 5.22. If A={x, y, z} and B={1,2}, there are 23-2=6 onto
functions. In general, if A=m and B=2, then there are
2m-2 onto functions.
 Ex 5.23. If A={w, x, y, x} and B={1,2, 3}.
 There are C(3, 3)34 functions from A to B.
 Consider subset B of size 2, such as {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, there are
C(3, 2)24 functions from A to B.
 Consider subset B of size 1, such as {1}, {3}, {2}, there are C(3,
1)14 functions from A to B.
 Totally, there are C(3, 3)34- C(3, 2)24+ C(3, 1)14 onto functions
from A to B.
 The number of onto functions
 For finite sets A and B with A=m and B=n, the number of
onto functions is:

 n m  n   n  n 1  n  m
 n   (n  1)  
m
(n  2) ...  (1)  1
m

 n  n  1  n  2  1

n
 n 
  (1) k
(n  k ) m
k 0 n  k
 Examples
 Ex 5.24. Let A={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and B={w, x, y, z}. So, m=7 and n=4.
 There are 8400 onto functions.
 C(4, 4)47-C(4, 3)37+C(4, 2)27-C(4, 1)17=8400

n
 n 
 ( 1)k
 
n  k ( n  k ) m

k 0  
Problem 1
Problem 2
 Examples
 Ex 5.26. Let A={a, b, c, d} and B={1, 2, 3}. So, m=4
and n=3. There are 36 onto functions, or equivalently, 36
ways to distribute four distinct objects into three
distinguishable containers, with no container empty.
 For mn, the number of ways to distribute m distinct
objects into n numbered containers with no container left
empty is :

n
 n 
 ( 1k
)  
n  k ( n  k ) m

k 0  
Distinguishable and identical
 distribute m distinct (identical) objects into n numbered
(identical) containers
 {a, b} in container 1, {c} in container 2, {d} in container 3
 {a, b} in one container, {c} in the other container, {d} in another
container
 2 objects in container 1, 1 object in container 2, 1 object in container 3
 2 objects in one container, 1 object in the other container, 1 object in
another container
 Stirling number of the second kind
 The stirling number of the second kind is the number of ways
to distribute m distinct objects into n identical containers, with
no container left empty, denoted S(m,n), which is

1 n k n 
 ( 1)  
n  k( n  k ) m

n! k 0  
 n

 S ( m, i )
i 1

 It is the number of possible ways to distribute m distinct

objects into n identical containers with empty containers
allowed.
Theorem 5.3.
 S(m+1, n)=S(m, n-1) + n S(m, n).
Ex 5.28.
 30030=23571113.
 How many ways can we factorize the number into two
factors? The answer is S(6, 2)=31.

 How many ways can we factorize the number into three

factors? The answer is S(6, 3)=90.
 If we want at least two factors in each of these unordered
factorization, then there are 202= 6
 S (6, i)
i2
5.4. Special functions
 Definition 5.10. f: AAB is called a binary operation. If
BA, then it is closed on A.
 Definition 5.11. A function g:AA is called unary, or
monary, operation on A.
 Ex:
 the function f: ZZZ, defined by f(a, b)=a-b, is a closed binary
operation.
 The function g: Z+Z+Z, defined by g(a, b)=a-b, is a binary
operation on Z+, but it is not closed.
 The function h: R+R+, defined by h(a)=1/a, is a unary operation.
Commutative and associative
 Definition 5.12. f is commutative if f(a, b)= f(b, a) for all a, b.
 When BA, f is said to be associative if for all a, b, c we have
f(f(a, b), c)=f(a, f(b, c))
Commutative and associative
 Ex 5.32.
 The function f: ZZZ, defined by f(a, b) = a+b-3ab is
commutative and associative.
 The function f: ZZZ, defined by h(a, b) = ab is not
commutative but is associative.
 Ex 5.33. Assume A={a, b, c, d} and f: AAA. There are 416
closed binary operations on A. Determine the number of
commutative and closed operations g.
 there are four choices for g(a, a), g(b, b), g(c, c) and g(d, d).
 The other 12 ordered pairs can be classified into 6 groups
because of the commutative property.
 The total number of binary and commutative operations is
4446.
Identity
 Definition 5.13. Let f: AAB be a binary operation on
A. An element x in A is called an identity for f if f(a, x)=
f(x, a)=a for all a in A.
 Ex 5.34.
 If f(a, b)=a+b, then 0 is the identity.
 If f(a, b)=ab, then 1 is the identity.
 If f(a, b)=a-b, then there is no identity.
Identity
 Theorem 5.4. Let f: AAB be a binary operation on A. If f has
an identity, then that identity is unique.
 Ex 5.35. If A={x, a, b, c, d}, how many closed binary operations
on A have x as the identity?
 Because x is the identity, we have Table 5.2, where there are 16
cells left unfilled.
 There are 516 closed binary operations on A, where x is the
identity.
 Of these, 510=5456 are commutative.
 If every element can be used as the identity, we have 511 closed
binary operations that are commutative.
Projection
 Definition 5.14. if DAB, then A: DA, defined by A(a,
b)=a is called the projection on the first coordinate. The
function B: DB, defined by B(a, b)=b is called the
projection on the second coordinate.
 if DA1 A2…An, then A: DAi  Ai  Ai ,,,, Ai ,
1 2 3 m

defined by (a1, a2, …, an)= ai , ai , ai , …, ai is called the

1 2 3 m

projection on the i1, i2, …, im coordinates.

The projection of a database
Digital Signature Standard (DSS)
5.5. Pigeonhole principle
 The pigeonhole principle: If m pigeons occupy n
pigeonholes and m>n, then at least one pigeonhole has
two or more pigeons roosting in it.
Theorem 1

 If k+1 or more objects are placed into k boxes, then

there is at least one box containing two or more of the
objects
examples
 among 13 people, at least two of them have birthdays
during the same month.

 In a group of 367 people, there must be two people with the

same birthday
 As there are 366 possible birthdays

 In a group of 27 English words, at least two words must start

with the same letter
 As there are only 26 letters
Examples
 In a laundry bag, there are 12 pairs of socks. Drawing
the socks from the bag randomly, we will draw at most
___ of them to get a matched pair.
13

 Let SZ+ and S=37. Then S contains two elements that

have the same remainder upon division by 36.
example
Examples
 Any subset of size 6 from the set S={1, 2, …, 9} must
contain two elements whose sum is 10.
Examples
 Triangle ACE is equilateral with AC=1. If five points are selected
from the interior of the triangle, there are at least two whose
distance apart is less than ½.
Examples
 Let S be a set of six positive integers whose maximum is at most
14. The sums of the elements in all the nonempty subsets of S
cannot be all distinct.
 There are 26-1=63 subsets of S.
 1SA 9+10+…+14=69
 If A=5, then 1SA 10+…+14=60
 There are 62 nonempty subsets A of A with 5A.
example
5.6. Function composition and inverse
function
 For each integer c there is a second integer d where c+d = d+c=0, and we
call d the additive inverse of c. Similarly, for each real number c there is a
second real number d where cd = dc=1, and we call d the multiplicative
inverse of c.
 Definition 5.15. If f: AB, then f is said to be bijective, or to be one-to-one
correspondence, if f is both onto and one-to-one.
 Definition 5.16. The function 1A: AA, defined by 1A(a)=a for all aA, is
called the identity function for A.
Equal function
 Definition 5.17. If f, g : AB, we say that f and g are equal
and write f = g, if f(a)=g(a) for all aA.
 A common pitfall may happen when f and g have a common
domain A and f(a)=g(a) for all aA, but they are not equal.
 Ex 5.51. f and g look similar but they are not equal.
 Ex 5.52. f and g look different but they are indeed equal.
Composite function
 Definition 5.18. If f : AB and g : BC, we define the
composition function, which is denoted by gf: AC, (gf)
(a)=g(f(a)) for each aA.
 Ex 5.53, Ex 5.54.
 Properties
 The codomain of f = domain of g
 If range of f  domain of g, this will be enough to yield gf: AC.
 For any f : AB, f1A = f = 1Bf.
Is function composition associative?
 Theorem 5.6. If f : AB and g : BC and h : CD, then
(hg)f=h(gf).
 Ex 5.55.
Definitions
 Definition 5.19. If f : AA, we define f1=f and fn+1=ffn.
 Ex 5.56
 Definition 5.20. For sets A and B, if  is a relation from A to
B, then the converse of , denoted by c, is the relation
from B to A defined by c={(b, a) (a, b)}.
 Ex 5.57
Invertible function
 Definition 5.21. If f : AB, then f is said to be invertible if
there is a function g: BA such that gf=1A and fg=1B.
(Ex 5.58 )
 Theorem 5.7. If a function f : AB is invertible and a
function g : BA satisfies gf=1A and fg=1B, then this
function g is unique.
Invertible function
 Theorem 5.8. A function f : AB is invertible if and only if it
is one-to-one and onto.
 Theorem 5.9. If f : AB and g : BC are invertible
functions, then gf: AC is invertible and (gf)-1=f-1g-1.
 Ex 5.60. f:RR is defined by f(x)=mx+b, and f-1:RR is
defined by f-1(x)=(1/m)(x-b).
 Ex 5.61. f:RR+ is defined by f(x)=ex, and f-1:R+R is
defined by f-1(x)=ln x.
Preimage
 Definition 5.22. If f: AB and B1B, then f-
1(B )={xAf(x)B }. The set f-1(B ) is called the pre-
1 1 1
image of B1 under f.
 Ex 5.62. If f={(1, 7), (2, 7), (3, 8), (4, 6), (5, 9), (6, 9)},
what are the preimage of B1={6, 8}, B2={7, 8}, B3={8, 9},
B4={8, 9, 10}, B5={8, 10}.
Ex 5.64
 Table 5.9 for f:ZR with f(x)=x2+5
 Table 5.10 for g:RR with g(x)= x2+5
Theorems

 For aA, af-1(B1B2)

f(a) B1B2
f(a) B1 or f(a)B2
af-1(B1) or af-1(B2)
af-1(B1)f-1(B2)
Theorem 5.11.
 If f : AB and A=B. Then the following statements are
equivalent: (a) f is one-to-one; (b) f is onto, (c) f is invertible.
5.7. Computational complexity
 Can we measure how long it takes the algorithm to solve a
problem of a certain size? To be independent of compliers
used, machines used or other factors that may affect the
execution, we want to develop a measure of the function,
called time complexity function, of the algorithm. Let n be
the input size. Then f(n) denotes the number of basic steps
needed by the algorithm for input size n.
Order
 Definition 5.23. Let f, g: Z+R. we say that g dominates f
(or f is dominated by g) if there exist constants mR+ and
kZ+ such that fmg(n) for all nZ+, where nk.
 When f is dominated by g we say that f is of order g and we
use what is called “Big-Oh” notation to denote this. We write
fO(g).
 O(g) represents the set of all functions with domain Z+ and
codomain R that are dominated by g.
Examples
 Ex 5.65, we observe that fO(g).
 Ex 5.66. we observe that gO(f).
 Ex 5.67. When f(n)=atnt+at-1tt-1 +…+a0, fO(nt).
 Ex 5.68.
 f(n)=1+2+…+nO(n2).
 f(n)=12+22+…+n2O(n3).
 f(n)=1t+2t+…+ntO(nt+1).
 When dealing with the concept of function dominance, we
seek the best ( or tightest) bound.
some order functions that are commonly
seen
5.8. Analysis of algorithms
 Ex 5.69. The time complexity is f(n)=7n+5O(n)
Ex 5.70. Linear search.
 The best case is O(1).
 The worst case is O(n).
 The average case f(n)=pn(n+1)/2+nq, where np+q=1.
Ex 5.72, Ex 5.73. compute an.

 In Figure 5.14, the time complexity is f(n) O(n).

 In Figure 5.15, the complexity is O(log n).
The growth of complexities