Planar graphs

Algorithms and Networks

 Planar graphs
• Can be drawn on the plane without crossings
• Plane graph: planar graph, given together with an
embedding in the plane
• Many applications…
• Questions:
– Testing if a graph is planar
– Finding a nice or good drawing of a planar graph
• But what does that mean?
– Solving problems for planar graphs
2 Planar graphs
 Graph drawing / network layout
• Applications:
– Visually representing a network (e.g., social
network, organization structure, data bases
(ER-diagrams), software (e.g., UML-diagrams),
flow charts, phylogenetic trees (biology,
evolution), …
– Design of “chip” layout (VLSI)
–…

3 Planar graphs
 Some notions
• Faces
• Exterior face
• Interior faces
• Each edge is incident to 2 faces, except in
special cases:

4 Planar graphs
 The smallest graphs that are not
planar
• K5, K3,3

5 Planar graphs
 Kuratowski / Wagner
• Theorem (Kuratowski, Wagner, 193*)
A graph is planar, if and only if it does not
contain the K5 and the K3,3 as a
homeomorphic subgraph / as a minor.
• H is a minor of G, if H can be obtained
from G by a series of 0 or more deletions of
vertices, deletions of edges, and contraction
of edges.
• Does not yield fast recognition algorithm!

6 Planar graphs
 The Petersen graph is not planar,
as it has K3,3 as minor

7 Planar graphs
 Euler’s theorem
• Theorem (Euler)
Let G be a connected plane graph with n vertices,
m edges, and f faces. Then n + f – m = 2.
• Proof. By induction.
– True if m=0.
– If G has a circuit, then delete an edge and …
– If G has a vertex v of degree 1, then delete v and …
• …

8 Planar graphs
 Euler’s theorem
Corollaries
• If G is a connected plane graph with no
parallel edges and no self-loops, with n > 1,
then m  3n-6.
– Every face `has’ at least three edges; each edge `is
on’ two faces, or twice on the same face.
• Every plane graph with no parallel edges and
no self-loops has a vertex of degree at most 5.
• Has algorithmic consequences…
9 Planar graphs
 Duality
• The dual G* of a plane graph G
– A vertex in G* for each face of G
– An edge in G* when faces share an edge in G

10 Planar graphs
 Drawings of planar graphs
• Different types
• Vertices are:
– Points in 2-dimensional space
– Rectangles, other objects
• Edges are Usual model
– Straight lines
– Curves
– Lines with bends
– Adjacencies or intersections of objects

11 Planar graphs
 Drawing planar graphs
In steps:
1. Test if G is planar, and
2. Find for each vertex, a clockwise ordering of
its incident edges, such that these orderings
allow a planar embedding, and then
3. Assign coordinates to vertices

12 Planar graphs
 Planarity testing: reduction to
biconnected graphs
• First, suppose G is biconnected.
– G is biconnected, if for each vertex v, G-v is connected.
– A biconnected component of G is a maximal subgraph
that is biconnected.
– A graph is planar, if and only if each of its biconnected
components is planar.
• Each biconnected component can be drawn with any vertex on
its exterior face.
• Build drawing of G by putting drawings of biconnected
components together.
• Easier non-constructive argument: G has a K5 or K3,3 minor, iff
a biconnected component of G has such a minor.
13 Planar graphs
 Cycles with pieces
• Take a cycle C in G.
• Divide edges not on C of G into classes:
– e and e’ in the same class if there is a path starting with
e, ending with e’, using no vertices on C as
intermediate points
– A class forms a piece.
• Pieces are
– A single edge between two vertices on C
– A connected graph with at least one vertex not on C
14 Planar graphs
 Separating cycles
• A cycle is separating if it has at least two
pieces.
• Plan:
– Find separating cycle C (how?)
– Test for each piece + C if it is planar
(recursion)
– Determine for each piece if it has to be drawn
inside or outside C (matching problem; details
follow).
15 Planar graphs
 Finding a separating cycle
• Find a cycle C.
• If C separating: done.
• Otherwise, let P be the unique piece.
• If P is a path: G is planar: done.
• Otherwise:
– Take two consecutive attachments v, w of P in the circular
ordering of C, and let Q be the part of C between the attachments
without another attachment.
– Take a path R between v and w in P avoiding other attachments
– C – Q + R is a separating cycle

16 Planar graphs
 The interlacement graph
• Pieces can be `inside’ or `outside’ the cycle
• Build interlacement graph
– Each piece is a vertex in interlacement graph
– Pieces are adjacent, when they cannot be at the
same side (look to attachments)

17 Planar graphs
 Theorem
• Let C be a separating cycle in G. G is a
planar graph, if and only if
– For each piece P, C+P is planar.
– The interlacement graph is bipartite.

Gives a polynomial
time algorithm!

18 Planar graphs
 Interlacement graph can be built
in O(n2) time
• For each piece
– Partition C into intervals with respect to
attachments
– For each other piece
• Look whether all attachments are in the same
interval
• If not, they conflict.

19 Planar graphs
 Algorithm
• Find a cycle C
• Test if C is separating.
• If not, use method to build separating cycle C’.
• Find pieces of C’.
• Build interlacement graph.
• Test if interlacement graph is bipartite. If not: G is
not planar, stop.
• Otherwise, test for each piece P, recursively, if
P+C’ is planar.
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 Time
• O(n3).
• Can be done faster: O(n) algorithms exist.
• Finding clockwise orderings of edges per
vertex can also be done: several details…

21 Planar graphs
 Force directed methods
• Method for arbitrary graphs
• Uses physical analogy:
– Force system
– Method to find equilibrium state
• Advantages:
– Relatively easy to understand and implement
– Often reasonably nice results

22 Planar graphs
 Springs and electrical forces
method
• Edges are springs
• Vertices repel each other
• Force on vertex:
– fuv is force on spring F (v)   f uv   g uv
– guv is repelling force {u ,v}E uV

23 Planar graphs
 Spring force
• Assume some `wanted length’ of an edge
luv. (E.g., 1.)
• Spring wants to assume length luv; force is
proportional to difference with luv.
• Choose some stiffness of the spring kuv.’
• Force in x-direction is (y-direction similar):
xu  xv
 kuv  d (u , v)  luv *
{u ,. v}E d (u , v)
24 Planar graphs
 Repelling force
• Vertices are repelling particles
• Follow inverse square law
• k’uv is strength of repulsion (choose some
number, e.g., experimentally)
• Repelling force of v in x-direction:
k 'uv xu  xv

uV ,u  v d (u , v )
2

d (u , v)
Similar in y-direction

25 Planar graphs
 Search for equilibrium
• Position where all vertices have a force of 0
towards them (sum of spring and repelling
forces)
• Springs have lengths of edges go to desired
length
• Repelling has vertices not too close together

26 Planar graphs
 Searching for equilibrium
• Numerical techniques
• Simple algorithm:
– Take for each vertex a random position
– Repeat:
• Compute for each vertex its force
• Move all vertices to new position depending on their forces
Until in sufficient rest
• Faster algorithms exist

27 Planar graphs
 Barycenter method
• Tutte, 1960
• Differences with force method
– No repelling forces
– luv = 0
– Stiffness is 1
– Vertices at exterior face get fixed positions

28 Planar graphs
 Force on a vertex

F (v )  ( p
{u ,v}E
u  pv )

Where pu is the position of u on the plane

If v is a free vertex

29 Planar graphs
 Finding equilibrium
• System of forces can be written as set of
linear equations
• Fast converging algorithms
• For planar graphs, system can be solved in
O(n1.5) time

30 Planar graphs
 Barycenter draw pseudocode
• Place all fixed vertices at corners of
polygon around origin, and all free vertices
on origin
• Repeat
– For each free vertex v do
• x(v) = 1/degree(v) * S((u,v) in E) x(u)
• y(v) = 1/degree(v) * S((u,v) in E) y(u)
until sufficient convergence
31 Planar graphs
 Theorem of Tutte
• If G is a triconnected planar graph, then this
method yields a planar drawing of G.
– Assuming …
– In practice, layers become smaller in the inside
• Generalizations with more complicated
forces sometimes also have this property
• If G is not triconnected, then we can make it
triconnected by adding edges
32 Planar graphs
 Grid drawings
• Many results on planar drawings, e.g.,
• Theorem (Schnyder, 1990) Every planar
graph G has a plane drawing, such that
– Each edge is a straight line
– Vertices are mapped to pairs of integers in
{0,1,…,n – 2} * {0,1, …, n – 2}

33 Planar graphs
 Many other results
• Embeddings with small areas and few bends
per edge
• Drawings where vertices are represented by
rectangles with an edge if rectangles touch
• …

34 Planar graphs