Neurobiology

Introduction to the Nervous System

Neuropharmacology
Molecular Neuroscience
Systems Neuroscience

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The Nervous System

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 The Nervous System

Neuron and neuroglia Central nervous system

Nerve impulse Brain
Neurotransmitters Spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic 3
 Importance?

• Determination of the biology of diseases and

disorders
• Development of treatments and therapies

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The Cells of the Nervous System

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 Neuron
transmits impulses (electrochemical signals)

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 Neuron
transmits impulses

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 Cell body
protein synthesis, neurotransmitter and repair proteins

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 Dendrite
transmit impulses from one neuron/receptor toward the cell body

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 Axon
carries impulses away from the cell body

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 Myelin sheath

•Schwann cells in Peripheral nervous system

(PNS)
•Oligodendrocytes in Central nervous system
(CNS)

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http://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/nervous-tissue-neuron-neuroglia/
Types of neuron based on structure

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Sensory neuron
carry signals from the outer
parts of your body (periphery)
into the central nervous system

Skin
Joints
Muscles
Internal organs

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Interneuron
connect various neurons within
the brain and spinal cord

Receptor of sensory organs

Auditory
Visual

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Motor neuron
carry signals from the central
nervous system to the outer
parts (muscles, skin, glands) of
the body

Brain
Spinal cord

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Types of neuron based on function

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 Neurogenesis
• 1000 new neurons develop in the
hippocampus

• Both exercise and some

antidepressant medications also
promote neurogenesis in the
hippocampus

• Stress has the opposite effect

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 Neuroglia
protect and nourish the neurons

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• Produce myelin sheath in CNS
(grey & white matter)

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• Smallest glial cell
• A macrophage engulfing damaged
neuron

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• Makes up the inner lining of the spinal
cord and ventricle of the brain

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• Lipid sheath covering the axon of neurons
• acts as an insulation
• Produces myelin sheath in the PNS

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• Largest glial cell
• Make up the blood-brain barrier
• Structural support
• Transport substances between blood
vessels and neurons
• mop up excess ions (K+) and
neurotransmitters

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Endoneurium wraps a single axon including the myelin
sheath

Fascicle a small bundle of nerve fibers/axons

Perineurium wraps a fascicle

peri-around

Epineurium wraps a bunch of fascicles

epi = upon/top
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 Let’s Review

Answer the following. Write the best answer.

Time Limit: 4 MINUTES

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 Organism Nervous System
Patterns of Organization of Nervous
No sensory receptors
Systems
Amoeba/Parameciu
but are sensitive to
m
light, heat and cold
Euglena Eye spot
Only multicellular
animals without a
Sponge
nervous system
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Patterns of Organization of Nervous
Systems

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Nerve net-collection of separate but
connected neurons

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 Cephalization come with more complex
nervous systems

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http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/invert.html // https://slideplayer.com/slide/6432047/
Cephalization come with more complex
nervous systems

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Vertebrate Nervous System

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 Nature of Nerve Signals
Membrane potential
• a localized electrochemical gradient across a
membrane
Charged Intracellular Extracellula
particles (inside the cell) r (outside
the cell)
Anion Amino acids, sulfate Chloride (Cl-)
(SO42-), phosphate
(PO42-)
Cation Potassium (K+) Sodium (Na+) 35
Membrane Ion Channels

•Gated ion channels

•Open or close in response to stimuli
•Voltage-gated: respond to
change in membrane potential
•Chemically-gated: respond
to chemical stimulus
•Ungated ion channels
•always open
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 Membrane potential
Membrane potential
• a localized electrical gradient across a
membrane

• Resting Potential
• Action Potential
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• Resting Potential
• -70mV

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 • Action Potential
• -55mV
Change in membrane potential=GRADED POTENTIAL

Graded Potential Changes in membrane potential

Gated K+ channels open K+ out of
the cell
Hyperpolarization
Membrane potential = more
NEGATIVE
Gated Na+ channels open  Na+ into
the cell
Depolarization
Membrane potential = more
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POSITIVE
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 Self-
propagation of
Nerve Impusles
• Nerve impulses propagate
themselves along an axon

• The action potential is

repeatedly regenerated
along the length of the
axon

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 Saltatory Conduction
In myelinated neurons, only unmyelinated regions (Nodes of Ranvier) of the
axon depolarize
Thus, the impulse moves faster than in unmyelinated neurons

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Synapses and Neurotransmitters

Synapse
•A junction between the axon of one neuron to the
dendrite of another

•A structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell)

to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another
neuron or to the target effector cell
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Neurotransmitter

Body’s chemical messengers that

stimulate nearby dendrites to start
new impulses

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Biogenic
amines
•Secreted by
the CNS, PNS
& adrenal glands

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Biogenic amines
•Secreted by
the CNS, PNS &
Adrenal glands

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• Secreted by
The CNS & PNS

• Lack: Parkinson’s
disease

• Excess: Schizophrenia
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• Secreted by
The CNS

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•Gamma-aminobutyric
acid

•Amino acids

•Secreted by the CNS

• (Invertebrates)
• Neuromuscular
junctions)
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• Amino acids

• Inhibitory in adult motor

and sensory pathways

• Excitatory in embryonic
development

• Secreted by CNS
• Amino acids

• Secreted by the CNS

• (Invertebrates)
• Neuromuscular
junctions)

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• Excitatory

• Localized in the ventral

spinal cord

• Secreted by the CNS

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Neuropeptides

•Substance P
• Excitatory
• Secreted by CNS & PNS
•Met-encephalin
• Inhibitory
• Secreted by CNS

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• Gases
• Local regulators
• Dendrites, axon, endoplasmic
reticulum and cytosol
• Produced by white blood
cells to combat bacteria and
Parasites
• Controls blood pressure
• Influence memory
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 Carbon monoxide
• Gases
• Local regulators
• Endoplasmic reticulum

• Mediates endothelial vasorelaxation

• Micturition
• Anti-inflammatory
• Anti-apoptotic
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 Let’s Review

Answer the following. Write the best answer.

Time Limit: 5 MINUTES

61
Vertebrate Nervous System
Central and Peripheral

Integration of
information

Association

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 Vertebrate Nervous System

Brain: protected by the skull

Spinal cord: protected by the vertebral column

Meninges: 3 layers of membranes covering the brain and

the spinal cord

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): bathes the CNS and prevents

them from jarring
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 Vertebrate Nervous System

Spinal tap: process in which a small volume of CSF

to examine for disorders

Meningitis: inflammation of the meninges

Peripheral ganglia: clusters of neuron cell bodies

lying outside the CNS
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 Vertebrate Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
Activity of the skeletal
Somatic Motor & muscles under the conscious
Nervous sensory control
System neurons (Smiling, running, singing,
drawing)
Muscles and glands that
Autonomi usually operate w/o our
Only motor
c Nervous being aware of them
neurons
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System
Camp and Arms, 1991
(blood pressure and
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CNS: The Brain
• Develops from the hollow nerve
cord

• The cavity of the nerve cord gives

rise to the narrow central canal of
the spinal cord and the ventricles of
the brain

• The canal and ventricles fill with

cerebrospinal fluid, which supplies
the CNS with nutrients and
hormones and carries away wastes
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• White matter consists of
bundles of myelinated
axons

• Gray matter consists of

unmyelinated axons,
nuclei and dendrites

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https://www.slideshare.net/mpattani/biology-in-focus-chapter-38
 Forebrain
• Telencephalon
• Diencephalon
• Olfactory and optic cranial
nerves
• Lateral and 3rd cerebral
ventricles

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 Forebrain
• Telencephalon
• Cerebral cortex

• Processing of sensory
information
• Controlling of motor function
• Performing higher order
funtion
• reasoning and problem
solving
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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 Forebrain
• Telencephalon
• Cerebral cortex

• Frontal lobe
• Parietal lobe
• Occipital lobe
• Temporal lobe

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 Forebrain
• Frontal Lobes: The prefrontal
cortex, premotor area, and motor
area of the brain;

• voluntary muscle movement,

• memory,
• thinking,
• decision-making,
• planning.
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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899 / http://www.richardsonthebrain.com
 Forebrain

• Parietal Lobes:
Responsible for receiving
and processing sensory
information; contain the
somatosensory cortex, which
is essential for processing
touch sensations.
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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899 / http://www.richardsonthebrain.com
 Forebrain
• Occipital Lobes:
Responsible for receiving and
processing visual information
from the retina.

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899 / http://www.richardsonthebrain.com
 Forebrain

•Temporal Lobes: Home of the

limbic system structures
including the amygdala, and
hippocampus; organize
sensory input; aid in auditory
perception, memory formation,
and language and speech
production.
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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899 / http://www.richardsonthebrain.com
 Forebrain
• Diencephalon
• relays sensory information
and connects components of
the endocrine system with the
nervous system.

• regulates a number of
functions including autonomic,
endocrine, and motor
functions. It also plays a major
role in sensory perception

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 Forebrain
• Diencephalon
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Pineal gland

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 Forebrain
• Diencephalon
• Thalamus
• connects areas of the cerebral
cortex that are involved in
sensory perception and
movement with other parts of
the brain and spinal cord

• control of sleep and wake

cycles

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 • Diencephalon Forebrain
• Hypothalamus
• respiration, blood pressure,
and body temperature regulation

• secretes hormones that act on

the pituitary gland to regulate
biological processes including
metabolism, growth, and the
development of reproductive
system organs
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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 • Pineal gland Forebrain
• Melatonin
• Sleep-wake cycles
• Sexual development
• Links nervous and
endocrine
systems

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 Midbrain
• Regulates movement
• Aids in visual and auditory
information processing

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 Midbrain
• Tectum
• Cerebral Peduncle
• Sunstantia nigra
• Oculomotor cranial nerve
• Trochlear cranial nerve
• Cerebral aqueduct

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 • Tectum
• houses the corpora quadrigemina
Midbrain

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 • Cerebral peduncle
• Tegmentum and crus cerebri
Midbrain
• connects the forebrain and hindbrain

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 • Substantia nigra
• produces dopamine
Midbrain
• controls voluntary movement and mood regulation

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 Hindbrain

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https://www.thoughtco.com/divisions-of-the-brain-4032899
 Lateralization of Brain Function
• Left Hemisphere • Right Hemisphere
• language • pattern recognition
• math
• spatial relationship
• logic operations
• processing of serial
• non-verbal ideation
sequences of information • emotional processing
• visual and auditory • parallel processing of
details information
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SDJ/TLS/JPQBiology11/PartV/Lecture8_Nervous System
 Language and Speech

• Broca's Area • Wernicke's Area

• Left hemisphere's • Right
frontal lobe hemisphere's
• speech temporal lobe
production • comprehension
of speech
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SDJ/TLS/JPQBiology11/PartV/Lecture8_Nervous System
 The Limbic System

• Hippocampus
• Olfactory cortex
• Inner portions of the
cortex's lobes
• Parts of the thalamus
and hypothalamus
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SDJ/TLS/JPQBiology11/PartV/Lecture8_Nervous System
 The Limbic System
• Mediates basic
emotions
• Establishes emotional
memory

• Amygdala: involved in the

recognition of emotional
content of facial expression
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SDJ/TLS/JPQBiology11/PartV/Lecture8_Nervous System
 Memory and Learning
• Long-term memory Transfer of information
from short-term to long
• established in the term
hippocampus
• enchanced by repetition
• influenced by emotional
• Short-term memory states mediated by the
• stored in frontal amygdala
lobes • influenced by association
with previously stored
information
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SDJ/TLS/JPQBiology11/PartV/Lecture8_Nervous System
 Reticular
Interconnected nuclei
formation
located throughout the
brain stem (medulla to
the midbrain)

Receives input from all types

of sensory neurons
entering the brain

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https://www.csuchico.edu/~pmccaffrey/syllabi/CMSD%20320/362unit6.html
 Reticular formation
Dorsal Tegmental
Midbrain
nuclei
Central tegmental
Pons
nuclei
Central and inferior
Medulla
nuclei

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http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/meded/neuro/2015-2016/Gruener/CerebCortexH.pdf
 Reticular formation
Ascending reticular formation/Reticular Activation
System
Sleep-wake cycle

Descending Reticular Formation

Posture and equilibrium
Autonomic nervous system activity
Motor movement 102

https://www.csuchico.edu/~pmccaffrey/syllabi/CMSD%20320/362unit6.html
 Reticular formation
Involved in the wakefulness
and arousal

Responsible for general

levels of lethargy and
liveliness

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https://www.csuchico.edu/~pmccaffrey/syllabi/CMSD%20320/362unit6.html
 Let’s Review

Answer the following. Write the best answer.

Time Limit: 5 MINUTES

104
 CNS: The Spinal Cord
Extends from the base
of the hindbrain to the
end of the vertebral
column

Area of spinal reflexes

that allow the body to
make quick responses
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Camp and Arms, 1991

 A Simple Nerve Circuit: The
Reflex Arc

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https://slideplayer.com/slide/10420712/
 PNS Cranial and Spinal
has paired nerves branchingnerves
out of
the CNS

Reptiles, birds, 12 Thickest, sensory neurons only

Cranial
mammals nerves pairs Olfactory (nose)
Optic (eyes)
Auditory (ear)
Others, motor and sensory
neurons
Tongue
Muscles of the eye and face
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Fish and 1st 10

Camp and Arms, 1991
 Cranial and Spinal nerves
PNS has paired nerves branching out of
the CNS

Spinal Nerves
Huma 31 Branch out from the spinal cord
n pairs between adjacent pairs of vertebrae

Each serves the skin, muscles and

internal organs
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Camp and Arms, 1991

 The Autonomic Nervous System
Governs most of the body’s homeostasis
heartbeat regulation

blood vessel muscle contraction

contraction of the muscles of the

digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts
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Camp and Arms, 1991

 Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Fight or Flight Rest and digest
Increases in blood
pressure, heart beat
and blood flow to the Slows down heart
muscles beat and breathing
rates
Decreases blood flow
to the digestive
organs and kidneys
Major
Neurotransmitte Norepinephrine Acetylcholine
110

r
Camp and Arms, 1991
 111

https://www.coursehero.com/sg/anatomy-and-physiology/nervous-system-and-spinal-cord/
 Sleep
Related to the circadian (daily) rhythm

Body temperature is synchronized with sleep

Spontaneous waking upon increase in body
temperature

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Camp and Arms, 1991

 Sleep
Heart rate drops
Blood pressure drops
Breathing becomes more shallow

Body temperature drops slightly except for toes

Cessation of alpha waves = onset of sleep 113

Camp and Arms, 1991

 Sleep
REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement)/ Paradoxical Sleep

one of the 4 stages of sleep

occurs every 80 to 20 minutes

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Camp and Arms, 1991

 Sleep
REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement)/ Paradoxical Sleep

Brain activity resembles that of someone who is awake

Motor activity is inhibited
Muscles more relaxed

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Camp and Arms, 1991

 Sleep

Dopamine
Wakefulness Norepinephrine
Acetylcholine
Sleep Serotonin

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Camp and Arms, 1991

 Let’s Review

Answer the following. Write the best answer.

Time Limit: 5 MINUTES

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