3.

SEDIMENTARY
STRUCTURES
A key to the interpretation of
the “Depositional Setting” of
sedimentary rocks
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Primary Bedforms (formed DURING deposition)

Bed form 1. Internal Structures

1A-Plane Beds Planar laminations Variant :
1B-Ripples Ripples cross-lamination &
Small-scale cross-lamination • Swaley & Hummocky
• Herringbone
1C-Dunes Large-scale cross-stratifications • Flaser-wavy-lenticular
(cross bedding) • Symmetric & Asymmetric Ripple
1D Graded Bedding • convolute

2. Erosion Structures on 3. Erosion Structures on

the UNDER side the UPPER side
of beds (sole markings) of beds (sole markings)

2A-Flute casts 3A-Rill marks

2B-Tool Marks 3B-Wind erosion
Groove casts 3C-Raindrop imprints
Prod marks, bounce marks
Chevron marks

After Bjorlykke (1984)

 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Secondary Bedforms (formed AFTER deposition)

4. Water Escape 6. Cracks

4A Dish structures 6A-Dessication mudcraks
(immediately after deposition) 6B-Shrinkage cracks, synaeresis
4B Sandstone dykes 6C-Frost cracks (polygons)
4C Sand volcanoes

5. Load Structures 7. Deformation Structures

(inverse density gradient) (due to gravity)
5A-Load casts 7A-Slumping
5B-Ball & pillow structures Growth faults
5C-Clay diapirs

+ Biogenic Structure
After Bjorlykke (1984)
1.a. Primary Bedform:
Cross Stratification
 Cross Stratification
Bedform Hierarchy
Cross lamination
/ ripple cross -lamination
/ small-scale cross-lamination

Cross lamination
= Mega ripples

Cross bedding
/ Large scale cross-stratification

Parallel lamination /
Parallel bedding

Cross bedding
 Cross Stratification
Variant 1: Swale & Hummocky Cross Stratification

STORM SURGE

MEAN SEA LEVEL

FAIRWEATHER WAVE BASE
HUMMOCKY DEPOSITION
STORM WAVE BASE

TURBIDITE DEPOSITION
GRADED RHYTHMITE DEPOSITION
(SIMPLE FALLOUT)
 Cross Stratification
Variant 1: Swale & Hummocky Cross Stratification
 Cross Stratification
Variant 2: Herringbone

‘Tide in’ and ‘Tide out’ are in opposite direction

 Wave & beach profile are in upright position

 supratidal
Cross Stratification
T
High tide level Variant 3: Structure caused by tidal
I
D
A
L
intertidal
(Flaser-Wavy-Lenticular)
R
A
supratidal
N
G
E
Low tide level
SALT
subtidal MARSH

MUD
intertidal FLATS Roofed
muds
MIXED
High tide
FLATS
level Lenticular
subtidal
bedding
SAND
FLATS Wavy bedding

TIDAL
CHANNEL
Low tide
Lateral
level
accretion
bedding

Fioser
bedding

Location of Formation
• flaser bedding - commonly forms in relatively high energy environments (sand flats)
• wavy bedding - commonly forms in environments that alternate frequently from higher to
lower energies (mixed flats)
• lenticular bedding - commonly forms in relatively low energy environments (mud flats)
 Cross Stratification
Variant 4: Asymmetric Wave Ripple

L = 30m

L
5 - 15 M 2

Asymmetric wave ripple

breaker

Symmetric
wave ripple
1.b. Primary Bedform:
Non-Cross Stratification
 Traction Current
Bedforms – Parallel Structure

Note High Energy Planar Beds

Photo: G. Voulgaris
Beach Face - South Carolina Foreshore
 Gravity Flow
Bouma Sequence: Graded Beds

Grain
Size
Fines
up
 2. Primary Bedform:
Erosion Structures on
the UNDER side
of beds (sole markings)

Flute casts, Tool Marks, Groove casts,

Crescent, Prod marks, bounce marks,
Chevron marks
Erosion Structure on UNDER SIDE of BED
Sole Marking: Formation of Flute Cast

Erosion of bed Deposition Burial and

lithification

Tectonic Subaerial Tectonic Subaerial

tilting erosion overturning erosion
Erosion Structure on UNDER SIDE of BED
Sole Marking: Flute Cast
Erosion Structure on UNDER SIDE of BED
Sole Marking: Groove Cast

Straight ridges the result of objects being dragged on surface

Erosion Structure on UNDER SIDE of BED
Sole Marking: Crescent
 3. Primary Bedform:
Erosion Structures on
the UPPER side
of beds (sole markings)

Rill marks, Wind erosion,

Raindrop imprints
Erosion Structure on the UPPER SIDE of BED
Sole Marking: Rain Drops
4. Secondary Bedform:
Water Escape

Dish structures,
Sandstone dykes,
Sand volcanoes
Secondary Structure
Water Escape: Dish Structure

Dish Structure - Ordovician - KTy

5. Secondary Bedform:
Load Structures

Load Casts,
Flame Structures,
Ball & Pillow Structures,
Clay Diapirs
Secondary Structure
Load Structure: Load Cast

Carbonate Load Cast – Ordovician - Kty

Secondary Structure
Load Structure: Flame Structure
Secondary Structure
Load Structure: Ball & Pillow
6. Secondary Bedform:
Cracks

Dessication mudcraks,
Shrinkage cracks, synaeresis
Frost cracks (polygons)
 Secondary Structure
Cracks: Mud Cracks

Mud cracks demonstrate drying-

out of a thin layer of sediment fine Product of desiccation &
enough to have significant contraction of muddy sediments
cohesion. Definite proof of
terrestrial setting or very shallow
water marginal marine.
7. Secondary Bedform:
Deformation Structures

Slumping & Growth faults

 Secondary Structure
Deformation Structures due to Gravity: Slumping

Bayah Formation, G. Walat

 Secondary Structure
Deformation Structures due to Gravity: Growth Fault
Biogenic Structure
SOME CLUES … !
 Gravity Flow
The Bouma Sequence
Grain Size Fines up
 Comparing Bouma w/ Allen Sequence
Grain Size Fines up
Where does turbidite happen?

Turbidite =
High energy + suspension mixed (mud,
mass flow), + SLOPE

 alluvial fan, crevasse splay,

submarine fan, thalweg (lag deposit),
pro delta, continental shelf.
 Some Clues
Normal & Abnormal Process
FLUVIAL TIDAL WAVE
Climbing Ripple a. Flaser-Wavy-Lenticular a. Hummocky (HCS) –Swale
(ripple bed form) b. Wave Ripple –
interference ripple

Through cross-bed b. Clay doublete / couplette Low angle cross stratification

(foreshore sandstone)

c. Clay drapes (should be on

fore set)
Rare burrow d. Lots burrow Fair burrow

FLUVIAL  TIDAL  WAVE 

FLOOD TSUNAMI STORM
Graded bedding (turbidite) Hummocky (HCS) – Swale
distal floodplain  climbing (?)
???
ripple on flood plain (covered
by suspension ?)
 Some Clues
Tidal Process Clues: clay doublette / couplette

Fine-grained
5 – 10 cm

Fine-grained
 Some Clues
Tidal Process Clues: Mud drapes

1m

Mud drapes  typical of tidal channel deposit

 Some Clues
Climbing Ripple on Flood Plain

Flood
A B
Climbing ripple
normal
The Genetic of Sand-Shale Striping Form

1. Clay drape cause of tide  ripple & clay

2. Classical flysch  graded bedding & clay
3. Big Lake  algal blooming when lake
level rise & down
4. Flood Plain deposit  when flood
Vertical & Lateral Succession
Three Types of Sediment
Accumulations
Vertical Change Succession

1. Progradation
Coarsening
upward

Lateral outbuilding, or progradation, of strata in a sea-ward direction.

Progradation can occur as a result of a sea-level rise accompanied by a high
sediment flux (causing a regression).

Example where c/u happen:

Delta (in general), Delta front (mouth bar), Bar (open
marine), alluvial fan, crevasse splay, submarine fan
Vertical Change Succession

2. Aggradation

Blocky

Vertical build up of a sedimentary sequence. Usually occurs when there is a relative rise
in sea level produced by subsidence and/or eustatic sea-level rise, and the rate of
sediment influx is sufficient to maintain the depositional surface at or near sea level.

Massive, no structure: turbid / mass flow (sediment grain size

are all the same)  all to be sedimentation directly ≤1m
Vertical Change Succession

3. Retrogradation
Fining upward

The movement of coastline land-ward in response to a transgression.

This can occur during a sea-level rise with low sediment flux.

Example where f/u happen (winning current normal process):

Channel fill to be abandonment
 Lateral Change Succession
Lateral Accretion Surfaces A B

(lateral progradation)

A B
1
.. .. . .
. ....... Lag Deposit
. . ..
..
.

A B
1
..2.. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .
3
Lateral Accretion
. ....... . ....... . .......
. .

Lateral accretion indicate meandering (subaerial & / subaquaeous)

Sedimentation Proces  Lateral Accretion Surfaces

Lateral
Accretion
THE END
 Cross Stratification
Variant 4: Structure caused by tidal
(Flaser-Wavy-Lenticular)
 Cross Stratification
Variant 5: Symmetric & Asymmetric Wave Ripple

VERTICAL SCALE GREATLY

EXAGGERATED
WAVES BEGIN TO BUILD UP
SPILLING BREAKERS
SHOALING WAVES
L = 30m
HIGH TIDE

SURF
SURF
ZONE
ZONE LOW

L
5 –15 M
2 FORESHORE
FORESHORE
LONGSHORE BARS
FAIRWEATHER WAVE BASE
LOWER MIDDLE UPPER

SHOREFACE
STORM WAVE BASE OFFSHORE

MUDDY
MUDDYSUBSTRATE
SUBSTRATE SANDY
SANDYSUBSTRATE
SUBSTRATE

Skolithos
Skolithos
Cruziana
Cruziana Ichnofacies
Zoophycos
Zoophycos