PRINCIPLE OF

COMMUNICATIONS

GROUP 1
IMPORTANT HISTORY AND
DEVELOPMENT IN
ELECTRONICS

razon
 INTRODUCTION
 What is electronics?
-use of electricity for measurement,
control, communications, computing, and
similar applications.

 Use of electronics in daily life

-alarms, light, calculators,
telephone, fridges, microwave ovens, etc.
 IMPORTANT SUBJECTS IN ELECTRONICS
 Radio Waves
-Waves of electromagnetic energy that travel at
the speed of light.
Prediction-James Clerk Maxwell
First demonstration-Heinrich Hertz
 Radar-Radio Detection and Ranging
-involves transmission and reflection of radio
waves.
 Transistors
It is an electronic component used to control
electric current and to provide amplification.
 IMPORTANT SUBJECTS IN
ELECTRONICS
 Integrated Circuits
Small chips of material incorporating the
functions of several separate components of a
conventional electric circuit.

 Microprocessor
Integrated circuit that contains all the
functions of a computer’s central processing
unit

 Batteries- source of electrical energy

HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS
Samuel Morse invented the
telegraph on 1837 and was
patented in 1844.

In 1866, United States and

England invented the first
transatlantic telegraph cable laid.
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS

In 1876, Alexander Bell

invented the telephone.

In 1887, Heinrich Hertz

(German) demonstrated the
radio waves.
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS
In 1887, Guglielmo Marconi
demonstrate the “wireless”
communication by radio waves.

In 1914, Hiram P. Maxim

founded the American radio
relay league, the first amateur
radio organization.
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS
In 1920, KDKA Pittsburgh
made the first radio
broadcast.

In 1923, Vladimir Zworykin

invented and demonstrate
the television.
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS
In 1939, United States first
use of two way radio
(walkie-talkies)

In 1940-1945, Britain and

United States invented the
perfection of radar(world
war 2)
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS
In 1948, John Von Neumann
and others create the first
stored program electronic
digital computer.

In 1943, Bell Laboratories

invent the transistor.
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS

In 1953, RCA/NBC made

the first color tv broadcast.

In 1958-1959, Jack Kilby

and Robert Noyce invented
the integrated circuit.
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS

In 1958-1962, United States

made the first communication
satellite tested.

In 1961, United States first

used by citizen band radio.
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS
In 1973-1976, Metcalfe
made the Ethernet and first
LANs.

In 1975, United States made

the first personal computers.
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS

In 1977, United States used

the first fiber optic cable.

In 1983, United States

made cellular telephone
networks
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS

In 1993, United States made

the first browser Mosaic.

In 1995, United States made

the Global Positioning
System deployed.
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS
In 1996-2001, first
smartphones by Blackberry,
Nokia, Palm.

In 1997, United States made

the first wireless LANs.
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS
In 2000, the 3rd generation
digital cellphones released.

In 2009, the 4th generation

LTE cellular networks.
HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS

In 2009, first 100 GB/s fiber

optical networks.
FUNDAMENTALS OF
COMMUNICATION

cuntapay
 B. FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• The range of electromagnetic signals
encompassing all frequencies

• It consist of all kinds of electromagnetic

radiadiations
 TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
• Gamma Rays Highest Frequency
• X-rays Shortest Wavelength
• Ultra-violet Rays
• Visible Light Waves
• Infrared Waves
• Microwaves Lowest Frequency
• Radio Waves Longest Wavelength
 GAMMA RAYS
• RELATIVE SIZE: Atomic Nucleus
• WAVELENGTH: 10^-12m
• Some radioactive substances and certain nuclear reactions produce
gamma rays
• Because of great penetrating ability, it can cause serious illness. However
when used in controlled conditions, it is useful in cancer treatment.
 X-RAYS
• RELATIVE SIZE: Atom
• WAVELENGTH: 10^-10m
• Can penetrate some material.
• Used in dentistry, medicine, industry and transportation
• Too much exposure can damage living tissue or even cause cancer.
 ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
• RELATIVE SIZE: DNA
• WAVELENGTH: 10^-8m
• Can kill micro-organisms
• Too much exposure can cause sunburn wrinkles and skin cancer and
damage cell DNA.
• Used in sterilize medical equipment, detect counterfeit.
 VISIBLE LIGHT WAVES
• RELATIVE SIZE: Bacteria
• WAVELENGTH: 10^-6m
• Enable us to see things / human eyes can detect
• Some of the uses of lights is in optical fibers in medicine and
telecommunication.
• ROYGBIV: Red has the lower frequency – violet the highest.
 INFRARED WAVES
• RELATIVE SIZE: Pin Tip
• WAVELENGTH: 10^-5m
• Infrared waves are heat waves
• many remote controls use infrared
• Medical treatment to warm injured muscles/sport injuries.
 MICROWAVES
• RELATIVE SIZE:
• WAVELENGTH: 10^-2m
• Mobile communication (mobile phones, etc)
• One of their most common uses is in microwave oven. It gives off
electromagnetic waves that bounce around inside the oven, penetrating
the food.
 RADIO WAVES
• RELATIVE SIZE: Mountain Range
• WAVELENGTH: 10^3m
• Radar and satellite communication
• Radio and television communication (to transmit sound and picture
information over long distance.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM USED IN
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
• ELF – AC Power line frequencies (50 and 60 Hz are common)

• VF – Normal range of human speech

• VLF – Higher end of the human hearing range up to about 15 or 20 KHz

• LF – Primary communication services using this range are in aeronautical and

marine navigation.

• MF – Major application of frequencies in this range is AM radio broadcasting (535

to 1605 KHz)

• HF – frequencies known as short waves

 ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
• VHF – Popular frequency range is used by many services, including mobile radio, marine and aeronautical
communication, FM radio broadcasting (88 to 108MHz) and television channels 2 through 13.

• UF – widely used portion of the frequency spectrum. Include UHF TV channels 14 through 51, used in land mobile
communication and services such as cellular telephonesas well as for military communication.

• MICROWAVES & SHF – Widely used for satellite communication and radar. WLAN & many cellular telephone
systems also occupy this region.

• EHF – Equipment used to generate and receive signals in this range extremely complex and expensive. Used for
satellite communication, telephony, computer data, short-haul cellular networks and some specialized radar.

• FREQUENCIES BETWEEN 300GHz AND THE OPTICAL SPECTRUM – This portion of the spectrum is virtually
uninhabited. It is a cross between RF and optical. Lack of hardware and components limits it use.
TIME/PERIOD

A time period (T) is the time taken for one complete cycle of
vibration to pass a given point. Frequency and time period are in
reciprocal relationship that can be expressed mathematically as:
T=1/f or as f=1T.
 FREQUENCY
• The number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit
of time.

• Number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a

given period of time.

• Measured in cycle per second (cps)

• f=1/T
 FREQUENCY VS PERIOD

1mHz 1Hz 1KHz 1MHz 1GHz 1THz

FREQUENCY
(10^-3Hz) (10^0Hz) (10^3Hz) (10^6Hz) (10^9Hz) (10^12Hz)
1Ks 1s 1ms 1microsecond 1ns 1ps
PERIOD (10^-6s)
(10^3s) (10^0s) (10^-3s) (10^-9s) (10^-12s)
WAVELENGTH
− Wavelength is the distance occupied by one cycle
of a wave, and it is usually expressed in meters
WAVELENGTH
− Also distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave
during the time of one cycle.

− Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light,

or 299,792,800 m/s.

− The speed of light and radio waves in a vacuum or

in air is usually rounded off to 300,000,000 m/s (3
3X10^8 m/s)
EXAMPLE
 B. FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION

• Bandwidth:

– Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum

occupied by a signal.

– It is also the frequency range over which a receiver or other electronic

circuit operates.

– More specifically, bandwidth is the difference between the upper and

lower frequency limits of the signal or the equipment operation range.
 EXAMPLES

1.

2.
 B. FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION

• Bandwidth:

– Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum

occupied by a signal.

– It is also the frequency range over which a receiver or other electronic

circuit operates.

– More specifically, bandwidth is the difference between the upper and

lower frequency limits of the signal or the equipment operation range.
 EXAMPLES

1.

2.
BASIC COMMUNICATION
MODEL

pangilinan
 BASIC COMMUNICATION
MODEL

All electronic communication systems have a

transmitter, a communication channel or medium, and a
receiver.
• Information
A message may also be generated by a computer
or electronic current. In electronic communication
systems, the message is referred to as information, or
an intelligence signal.
Types of information
• Voice messages
• Light information
• Computer data
• Physical characteristics
• Transmitter
- the transmitter itself is a collection of electronic
components and circuits designed to convert the electrical signal
to a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication
medium.
• Communication Channel
- The communication channel is the medium by which the
electronic signal is sent from one place to another.

Types of Media
1. Electrical Conductors
2. Optical Media
3. Free Space
• Receivers
- a receiver is a collection of electronic components and
circuits that accepts the transmitted message from the channel
and converts it back to a form understandable by humans.
•
• Noise
- Noise is the bane of all electronic communications. Its
effect is experienced in the receiver part of any communication
system.
NOISE CONCEPT

castillo
 D. NOISE CONCEPT

• Noise is an unwanted signal which interferes with the

original message signal and corrupts the parameters
of the message signal.
• The noise signal can be understood by having a look
at the example figure
• Noise is an electronic signal that is a
mixture of many random frequencies
at many amplitudes that gets added to
a radio or information signal as it is
transmitted from one place to another
or as it is processed.
• Noise can be external to the receiver
or originate within the receiver itself.
In the context of signal processing
1. It can mean an unwanted signal of any
kind. If two signals interfere with each
other, each signal would consider the
other as “Noise”
2.”Noise” also refers to a signal that
contains components at many
frequencies, so it lacks the harmonic
structure of the periodic signals.
• White Noise
• Blue Noise
• Pink Noise
• Brown Noise
White Noise
• in signal processing, white noise is a
random signal having equal intensity
at different frequencies, giving it a
constant power spectral density
• refers to sounds that masks other
sounds that might occur naturally in
an environment
Blue Noise
• increases in volume with increasing
frequency, but at a lower rate than a
similar kind of noise called violet noise
• blue noise is also known as azure
noise
Pink Noise
• is a signal with a frequency spectrum
such that the power spectral density
(energy or power per frequency
interval) is inversely proportional to
the frequency of the signal
Brown Noise
• also known as red noise
• alternative name of random walk
noise
• strong in longer wavelengths, similar
to the red end of visible spectrum
 Correlated Noise Un- Correlated Noise

• filtered noise • refers to noise that has zero

• cannot be presented in autocorrelation function
circuit unless there's a • noise signals is
signal “INDEPENDENT”
CORRELATED NOISE (INTERNAL)
• is a term used (in fieldssuch as electronics, audio,
and telecommunications) to describe the
phenomenon of a non-linear relationship between
the input and output signals of an electronic device
Harmonic Distortion
• occurs when the original audio signal (which
of course is made up of sine waves) is
distorted by the electronics of the system,
resulting in an output audio signal that is
somewhat different from the input.
Intermodulation Distortion
• can occur when two or more signals
are mixed through a non-linear
amplifier device and interact with
each other in ways that produce
additional signals.
UNCORRELATED NOISE
• Comes from sources over which we have little or no
control
• Generally known as white noise
• External noise may be classified into the following
three types (Atmospheric noise, Extraterrestrial
noise, man-made noises or industrial noise)
Atmospheric Noise
• is a radio noise caused by natural
atmospheric interference
• is a kind of false wave that resembles the
desired radio waves of the same frequency
• also called static
• occurs in digital as well as analog system
• random, naural atmospheric processes
Extraterrestrial Noise
• radio disturbances from sources other
than those related to earth
• classified into two; Solar and Cosmic
Noise
 Solar Cosmic

• originates from the sun • random noise that

• electrical disturbances such originates outside the
as corona discharges, as earth's atmosphere
well as sunspots can • characteristics are similar to
produce additional noise those thermal noise
Man-Made Noise (Industrial Noise)
• sources such as automobiles, aircraft,
ignition, electric motors and switching
gear, high voltage wires and etch. This
noises are produced by the discharge
present in all these operations.
Impulse Noise
• usually caused by electromagnetic
interference, scratches on the
recording disks, gunfire, explosions
and ill synchronization in digital
recording and communication.
Interference Noise
• modifies a signal in a disruptive
manner, as it travels along a channel
between its source and receiver
• addition of unwanted signals to useful
signals
• Noises which get, generated within the receiver or
communication system.
• Electronic components in a receiver such as a
resistors, diodes, and transistors are major sources of
internal noise.
• although it is low level, is often great enought to
interfere with weak signals.
Most common examples of this type of
noise are:
• Thermal agitation noise (Johnson noise
or Electrical noise)
• Semi-conductor noise
• Transit-time noise (during the
transition)
• Miscellaneous noise is another type of
noise which includes flicker, resistance
effect, and mixer generated noise, etc.
Thermal Noise
• also known as Johnson noise
• also known as thermal agitation
• is the electronic noise generated by
the thermal agitation of the charge
carries inside an electrical conductor
at equilibrium, which happens
regardless of any applied voltage
• increases with the temperature
Semi-Conductor Noise
• types are shot noise, transit-time
noise, and flicker noise (most common
type is shot noise)
 Shot Noise Flicker Noise
• results from unavoidable • also known as 1/f noise, is a
random statistical signal or process with a
fluctuations of the electric frequency spectrum that
current when the charge falls off steadily into the
carries (such as electrons) higher frequencies,with a
traverse a gap. pink spectrum.
 Burst Noise Transit-Time Noise
• also called as RTN , popcorn • results when a signal
noise, impulse noise, bi- frequency's period is the
stable noise, or RTS same as the time an
electron takes to travel from
sender to receiver.
 EXTERNAL NOISE
Examples:
a. Natural noise
-Atmospheric noise: causing crackles on our radio
-Cosmic noise or space noise
b. Man made (artificial) noise
-machinery
-switches
-certain types of lamps
How to determine noise level in
communication system?
• Noise effect can be determined by measuring:
• -Signal to Noise ratio (SNR for Analog System)
• -probability of error or error bit rate (BER for
digital system)
• To determine the quality of received signal at
the receiver or antenna, SNR is used.
• Another parameters that can be used is Noise
Factor, F and Temperature, T.
 NOISE
CALCULATION

guiterez
 NOISE CALCULATION

• SNR is a ratio of signal power,

S to noise power, N.

• Noise Figure, F

• Noise Factor, NF
Noise calculation in amplifier
ANALYSIS AMPLIFIER WITH NOISE
ANALYSIS AMPLIFIER WITHOUT NOISE
DECIBEL CONCEPT

makabenta
UNDERSTANDING DECIBELS
DECIBELS CONCEPT
PREPARED BY:
MAKABENTA, NEMIA B.
 The term “bel” is derived from
the name of alexander graham
bell, inventor of the telephone.

 The unit used to compare the

intensity of sounds was
originally the bel which was the
logarithm of the intensity ratio
10:1. This unit was considered too
large to be useful, so a unit one
tenth the size of a bel, the
decibel (db), was adopted.
 WHAT IS
DECIBEL?
 DECIBELS

 Is the unit used to measure the intensity of A sound.

 The decibels is a relative unit of measurement

commonly used in communications for providing a
reference for input and output levels.
 The gain or loss of a circuit is usually expressed in
decibels (dB) a unit of measurement that was
originally created as a way of expressing the hearing
response of the human ear to various sound levels.

 When gain and attenuation are both converted to

decibels, the overall gain or attenuation of an
electronic circuit can be computed by simply adding
the individual gains or attenuation, expressed in
decibels.
Logarithms and the decibel scale
Decibel levels of some common sounds
 Why use the logarithmic scale?

 The change in the sound is only

noticeable with using the powers of 10.

 Easier to convert back and forth, nicer

numbers

 Takes about ten times the intensity for

it to sound twice as loud.
 “3 db rule”

 The 3dB rule is important to remember when you

come to measure noise as well as analyse and predict
individual exposure.

 Every 3dB change represents a doubling or halving of

sound energy.
 Neper
 The neper is often used to express ratios of voltage
and current amplitudes in electrical circuits, whereas
the decibel is used to express power ratios.

 1Np =20/ln 10 dB
= 20log10 e dB
=8.685889683 dB
 1DB = ln10/20 Np
=1/20log10 e Np
=0.115129254 Np

 Like the decibel, the neper is a dimensionless unit.

 DECIBEL
CALCULATIONS

ordonez
 Calculating decibels

• The use of decibels is widespread throughout the electronics

industry. Many electronic instruments are calibrated in
decibels, and it is common for data sheets describing various
instruments and devices to give the specifications in terms of
decibels. For these reasons a study of their use is essential.
 Calculating decibels

• The amplifier delivers an output voltage to a load resistor whose value is

R2. In describing the gain of the amplifier we may speak of either the
power gain or the voltage gain. The power gain G is-defined as the power
delivered to R2 divided by the power delivered to the amplifier resistance
R1. That is, P2  2 / R 2
2
 2 
2
R1 R1
G     G  A  10 log
P1  1 2 / R1   2  R 2
(1) db db
R2
 Calculating decibels

•
In the remainder of this section we develop some
shortcuts that allow rapid conversion between ordinary
numbers and decibel equivalents. Adb is a function of A,
meaning that each value of A selected, only one value of
Adb can be calculated. For instance,

When A = 1 Adb = 20 log 1 = 0 db

 Calculating decibels

•
In the remainder of this section we develop some
shortcuts that allow rapid conversion between ordinary
numbers and decibel equivalents. Adb is a function of A,
meaning that each value of A selected, only one value of
Adb can be calculated. For instance,

When A = 1 Adb = 20 log 1 = 0 db

 Calculating decibels

• First, note that each time A is increased by a

factor of two.
A = 1, 2, 4, S, …
Adb increases by 6 db
Adb = 0, 6, 12, 18, …
Conversely, each time that A decreases by a
factor of two
A = 1, ½ , ¼ , , …
Adb decreases by 6 db
Adb = 0, -6, -12, -18, …
 Calculating decibels
• Adb increases by 20db
Adb = 0, 20, 40, 60, ….
 Calculating decibels

 Conversely, each time A is decreased by a factor of ten

1 1 1
A = 1, 10 , 100 , 1000

 Adb decreases by 20 db
Adb = 0, -20, -40, 60, …
These properties of decibels make the conversion from ordinary numbers
into decibels a simple matter. We need only express the ordinary number
in factors of two and ten and convert according to the decibel properties
described. As an example, let us convert A= 4000 into its decibel
equivalent.
 Calculating decibels

A = 4000 = 2 . 2 . 10 . 10 .10
Adb = 6 + 6 + 20 + 20 + 20 = 72db

• We have factored A into twos and tens and added 6 or 20 db for each
factor of two or ten to obtain the total of 72 db.
As another example, consider A = 0.004. We write this as a fraction and
then factor into twos and tens
4 2.2
A  0.004  
1000 10 .10 .10

Adb  6  6  20  20  20   48db
A power ratio of 1:100
• If the intensity of one sound is 100
times greater than that of another,
then I1/I2 = 100; log 100 = 2.0 and 10
x 2.0 = 20 dB. An intensity ratio of
1:100 or 0.01 yields an amplitude ratio
of 0.1 (√0.01 = 0.1).
A power ratio of 1:2
However, if you were to hear the
noise of an air hammer, then the noise
of a second air hammer were added
to that, the increase in intensity would
be only 3 dB, since it would only have
a power ratio of 1 to 2, i.e. 0.50, and
an amplitude ratio of 0.707.
(e.g. 40/20 = 2; log 2 = 0.301;
0.301 x 10 = 3dB; √0.5 = .707)
A power ratio of 1:4
A 6 dB change in intensity means a
power ratio of 1 to 4, i.e. 0.25, with an
amplitude ratio of 1 to 2 or 0.50.

(e.g. 100/25 = 4; log 4 = .602;

.602 x 10 = 6 dB; √0.25 = 0.5)
From softest to loudest
The intensity ratio between the faintest
audible sound and the loudest sound we can
tolerate is one to one trillion, i.e. 1012; the
log of 1012 is 12, and 12 x 10 = 120 decibels,
the approximate range of intensity that
human hearing can perceive and tolerate.
The eardrum would perforate instantly upon
exposure to a 160 dB sound.
 Calculating decibels

EXAMPLE 1

• Find the decibel equivalent of A = 2000.

SOLUTION
A = 2000 = 2.10 . 10 . 10
Adb = 6 + 20 + 20 + 20 = 66 db
 Calculating decibels
EXAMPLE 2
 Find the decibel equivalent of A = 3000
SOLUTION
 This number is not factorable into twos and tens, but it lies between 2000 and
4000, numbers which are so factorable.
A = 2000 = 2 . 10 . 10 . 10
Adb = 6 + 20 + 20 + 20 = 66db
A = 4000 implies that we add 6 db to obtain Adb = 72 db.
For A = 3000, we interpolate to obtain Adb = 69 db.
(The exact answer is 69.5 db. Whenever we interpolate the maximum error possible is
about 0.5 db.)
 Calculating decibels

EXAMPLE 3
• Find the decibel equivalent of P2/P1 = 2000
SOLUTION
This is a ratio of two powers. The decibel equivalent of a power ratio is one-
half the decibel equivalent of a voltage ratio of the same numerical value.
We need only proceed in our usual manner and divide the answer by 2.
2000 = 2 . 10 . 10 . 10
6 + 20 + 20 + 20 = 66db
Hence, Gdb = 33 db
 Calculating decibels

EXAMPLE 4

• An amplifier has an input voltage of 1 mv and an output voltage of 1.6

volts. Express the voltage gain of the amplifier in decibels.
• SOLUTION
The voltage gain of the amplifier is the output voltage divided by the input
voltage.

Adb = 6+6+6+6+20+20 = 64db

 Calculating decibels

EXAMPLE 5

• Find the decibel equivalent of A = 1 200

• SOLUTION

1 1
A 
200 2 .10 .10

Adb = -6 –20 –20 = 46 db

 Decibel Gain of a System

One important reason for the use of decibels is that for a system
consisting of many stages, the overall gain in decibels is the sum of the stage
gains expressed in decibels.

Fig.4 The decibel gain of a cascade of stages.

A1, A2, and A3 are the voltage gains of each stage expressed in ordinary
numbers, that is, as ratios. For instance, the first stage may have a voltage
gain of 100, so that A1 is 100, meaning that the output voltage divided by
the input voltage is 100.
 Calculating decibels

• To find the ordinary voltage gain of the entire system

we already know that the gains are multiplied
A = A 1 A2 A3
where A is the overall gain.
Let us find the decibel equivalent of the overall gain.
Adb = 20 log A = 20 log A1 A2 A3
Recall that the logarithm of a product of numbers is equal
to, the sum of the logarithms of each number.
 Calculating decibels

 Adb = 20 (log A1 + log A2 + log A3)

= 20 log A1 + 20 log A2 + 20 log A3
Each term on the right-hand side of the last equation is merely the decibel
gain of each stage. Hence,
 Adb = A1 (db) + A2(db) + A3(db) (10)

Equation (10) tells us that the overall decibel gain is the sum of the decibel
gains of the individual stages. This property is another reason for the
popularity of decibels. If we work with decibel gains, we add the stage gains
to find the overall gain. This is considerably easier than working with
ordinary gains, where it is necessary to multiply to find the overall gain.
 Calculating decibels

• In practice, we will find that voltmeters often have a

decibel scale, so that the gain of a stage can be
measured in decibels. For instance, on some
voltmeters a reference voltage of 0.77 volt is used. A
decibel scale is provided on the meter face, so that all
voltages can be. read in decibels with respect to 0.775
volt.
•
 Calculating decibels

• We might find, for example, that the input to a stage

reads -10 db and the output reads +20 db. The gain of
the stage is the algebraic difference between these
two values, or 30 db. In this way, the decibel gains of
different stages are easily found. Once they are
known, they can be added to find the overall gain of a
system in decibels.
 Calculating decibels

• EXAMPLE 7
Find the overall gain for the system of the following Fig.

SOLUTION
Adb = 20 – 10 + 35 = 45 db
Calculating decibels

• 0dB Reference Values

0dBV = 1 Volt
0dBu = 0.775 Volts
0dBm = 0.001 Watts
Calculating decibels
The dB Formulas

Voltage
dBV = 20 x log (V / Vref)
dBu = 20 x log (V / Vref)

Watts
dBm = 10 x log (P / Pref)
 Calculating decibels

Voltage (V)
Voltage is the potential difference between two points (e.g. the + and -
sides of a battery)

0dBV = 1 volt
dBV = 20log (V / Vref)

V is the measured voltage

Vref is the reference voltage (1 volts)
 Calculating decibels
Voltage (u)
dBu is referenced to 0.775 volts RMS (Root Mean Square)

0dBu = 0.775 volts

dBu = 20log (V / Vref)

V is the measured voltage

Vref is the reference voltage (0.775 volts)
 Calculating decibels
Power (P)
Power is the rate at which energy is produced or used

0dBm = 0.001 watts

dBm = 10log (P / Pref)

dBm is the signal level
P is the measured wattage
Pref is the reference wattage (0.001 watt)
 Calculating decibels

EXAMPLE 6

• A voltmeter is calibrated in decibels with a reference voltage of 0.775 volt.

What does the voltmeter read in decibels for a voltage of 3.1 volts?
• SOLUTION

The voltmeter will read 12 db, meaning that given voltage is four times
greater than the reference of 0.775 volt.