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The
Univer
se
Introduction
– Astronomy is an exciting and mind expanding physical

science that has fascinated and intrigued people since
the beginnings of recorded history. Ancient civilizations
searched the heavens in wonder, recording some of their
observations in clay tablets. Many religious and
philosophical beliefs were originally based on
interpretations of these ancient observations.
Ancient Ideas
– Early civilizations had a much better view of the night

sky. Back then, people could clearly see the motion of
the moon and stars night after night, observing recurring
cycles of motion. These cycles became important as they
become associated with the timing of certain events.
Observing the sky was an important activity, and as
many early civilizations built observatories with sighting
devices to track and record astronomical events.
Babylon Civilization
– As early as 2000 B.C. they kept track of long periods of

time dividing the year into 12 months, with 7 days to a
week and 360 days to a year.
– They were able to compile star catalogs and were able to
predict eclipses.
– Their concept of universe is geocentric.
IDEA OF THE UNIVERSE
1. In the Babylonian conception of the universe, the earth

occupied the central place. It was the accepted centre of
their planetary system.
2. The northern half of the earth was called the upper,
associated with life and light. The southern half was
called the under, associated with darkness and death.
The South and the Underworld was identical.
1. The upper or northern half of the earth was regarded as

consisting of seven stages (tupukati), ranged one above
the other in the form of pyramid. The staged temple of
Nippur, according to Sayce, was a model of the Earth
according to the belief of those who believe it.
2. Correspondingly, the Antarctic or under half of the earth
was supposed to consist of seven similar stages. The
seven tupukati of the underworld are the facsimile of the
seven tupukati of the over world.
1. Like the quadrilateral temple modelled after it, the earth of the
Babylonians was four cornered. In this particular, it agreed with
the conception ascribed to the ancient Egyptians, Hebrews,
Chinese and to the Indo-Aryans of the Rig-Veda period.
2. In Babylonian thought there were seven heavens and seven hells.
This belief is one of the untraceable antiquity.
3. Above the seventh heaven was another, the “highest heaven” that
of the fixed stars, called by the Babylonians the “heaven of Anu”,
after the name of one of their oldest and highest gods.
1. This eighth heaven was divided by the Zodiac into two corresponding portions,
an upper or Arctic and an under or Antarctic. At the upper pole, Anu had his
palace and throne.
2. In Babylonian thought, the north pole of the heavens was the true zenith of the
cosmic system, and the axis of the upright; consequently diurnal movements of
the sun and moon were regarded as occurring in a horizontal plane.
3. Proceeding outward from the central earth, the order of the seven known
planets was as follows: Moon, Sun, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. That
their respective distances from the Earth were not uniform was already known.
1. In order to pass from the upper half of the Earth to its under half, that is, from
the abode of the living men to the abode of the dead. It was necessary to cross
a body of water which on every side separated the two abodes.
2. According to Diodorus Siculus, the Babylonians considered that the twelve
designated stars south of the Zodiac stood in the same relation to the dead as
do the twelve corresponding stars north of the Zodiac to men in the land of the
living. This representation clearly makes the living and the dead the residents
respectively of antipodal surfaces of one and the same heaven-enclosed Earth.
According to the Babylonian Creation Tablets (V, line 8) Anu and Ea are
antipodally located gods, Anu being enthroned at the north pole of the heavens,
and Ea at the south pole.
Egyptian Civilization
– As in the case with most ancient mythologies, the

Egyptians created myths to try to explain their place in
the cosmos. Their understanding of the cosmic order
was from direct observation of nature. Therefore their
myths concern themselves with gods of nature; the
earth, the sky, the sun, the moon, the stars, and of
course, the Nile river.
– In the beginning there was only water, a chaos of churning,

bubbling water, this the Egyptians called Nu or Nun. It was out of
Nu that everything began. As with the Nile, each year, the
inundation caused chaos to all creatures living on the land, so this
represents Nu. Eventually the floods would recede and out of
chaos of water would emerge a hill of dry land, one at first then
more. On this first dry hilltop, on the first day came the first
sunrise. So that is how the Egyptians explain the beginning of all
things.
– The earliest Egyptian calendar was devised based

on the appearance and disappearance of Sirius,
the brightest star in their horizon. Another
calendar was based on the phases of the moon,
consisting of 29 and ½ days. The first 365-day
calendar was probably devised by Imhotep during
the Old Kingdom.
Zodiac Signs
– Zodiac means “circle of animals”

– The sun moves across the different constellations, or
“sign” each month so there are 12 signs of the zodiac.
– The early Babylonians used this to tell time.
– The 12 signs of the zodiac also identified the 12 months,
with each month beginning a new moon.
Scientific Ideas of the Universe
– The universe is defined as the summation of all particles

and energy that exist and the space-time in which all
events occur.
– The universe is commonly defined as the totality of
everything that exists, including all matter and energy,
the planets, stars, galaxies and the contents of
Intergalactic space.
The Big Bang Theory
– According to the prevailing scientific model of the

universe, known as the Big Bang, the universe expanded
from an extremely hot dense phase called the Plank
epoch, in which all the matter and energy of the
observable universe was concentrated. Since the Plank
epoch, the universe has been expanding to its present
form, possible with a brief period (less than 10-32
seconds) of cosmic inflation.
Expanding Universe
– In the 1920s, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered the universe

was not static. Rather, it was expanding, a find that revealed the
universe was apparently born in a Big Bang.
– After that, it was long thought the gravity if matter in the universe
was certain to slow expansion of the universe.
– In 1998, the Hubble Space Telescope’s observations of very distant
supernovas revealed that a long time ago , the universe was
expanding more slowly than it is today. In other words, the
expansion of the universe was not slowing due to gravity, but
instead inexplicably was accelerating.
Galaxy
– A galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound system

consisting of stars, interstellar medium of gas and dust,
and dark matter.
– Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten
million (107) stars up to giants with one trillion (1012)
stars, all orbiting a common center of mass.
– Galaxies can also contain many multiple star systems,
star clusters and various interstellar clouds.
Galaxy
– Historically, galaxies have been categorized according to their apparent shape.

– A common form is the elliptical galaxy, which has an eclipse-shaped light
profile.
– Spiral galaxies are disk-shaped assemblages with curving dusty arms.
– Galaxies with irregular or unusual shapes are known as peculiar galaxies, and
typically result from disruption by gravitational pull of neighbouring galaxies.
Such interactions between nearby galaxies, which may ultimately result in
galaxies merging, may induce episodes of significantly increased star formation
producing what is called starburst galaxy. Small galaxies that lack a coherent
structure could also be referred to as irregular galaxies.
Stars
– A star is a massive, luminous ball of plasma. Stars are group

together to form galaxies and they dominate the visible universe.
– A star shines because nuclear fusion in its core releases energy as
it traverses the star’s interior and then radiates into outer space.
– Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were
created inside the cores of stars.
The Sun
Interior
The solar furnace that converts hydrogen into helium is deep within
the Sun in a region called the core. The difference in temperature
between the core and the surface of the sun forces the energy to
travel outward. It travels as radiation through a region called the
radiation zone. In the outer part of the sun’s interior, heated solar
material circulates in large cells, carrying the energy with it. This
process is called convection, and this part of the sun is called the
convection zone.
The Sun
Photosphere
Above the convection zone is the photosphere. The
photosphere is the part of the sun that we see. It is the
sun’s lower atmosphere. The photosphere is a few
hundred miles thick. It gives off most of its energy as
visible light and heat.
The Sun
Chromosphere
Above the photosphere is the chromosphere. The chromosphere is
several thousand miles thick, but because the gases in the
chromosphere are so thin and emit a very little light, the
chromosphere is hard to see. It can be observed through special
filters and during the solar eclipses when the much brighter
photosphere is blocked out by the moon. The chromosphere’s
color is orange-red.
The Sun
Corona
The outermost layer of the sun is the corona. The corona extends
millions of miles into space. The corona is the hottest part of the
surface of the sun. it has temperatures reaching millions of
degrees. Because the corona is millions of times fainter than the
photosphere, it can be seen only during solar eclipses or with
specially designed scientific instruments called coronagraphs.

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The

– Astronomy is an exciting and mind expanding physical

– Early civilizations had a much better view of the night

– As early as 2000 B.C. they kept track of long periods of

1. In the Babylonian conception of the universe, the earth

1. The upper or northern half of the earth was regarded as

– As in the case with most ancient mythologies, the

– In the beginning there was only water, a chaos of churning,

– The earliest Egyptian calendar was devised based

– Zodiac means “circle of animals”

– The universe is defined as the summation of all particles

– According to the prevailing scientific model of the

– In the 1920s, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered the universe

– A galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound system

– Historically, galaxies have been categorized according to their apparent shape.

– A star is a massive, luminous ball of plasma. Stars are group

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