Interference of Light Waves

Wave Optics
 Wave optics is a study concerned with
phenomena that cannot be adequately
explained by geometric (ray) optics
 These phenomena include:
 Interference
 Diffraction
 Polarization
Interference
 In constructive interference the amplitude of
the resultant wave is greater than that of
either individual wave
 In destructive interference the amplitude of
the resultant wave is less than that of either
individual wave
 All interference associated with light waves
arises when the electromagnetic fields that
constitute the individual waves combine
Conditions for Interference
 To observe interference in light waves, the
following two conditions must be met:
 1) The sources must be coherent
 They must maintain a constant phase with respect to
each other
 2) The sources should be monochromatic
 Monochromatic means they have a single wavelength
Producing Coherent Sources
 Light from a monochromatic source is used to
illuminate a barrier
 The barrier contains two narrow slits
 The slits are small openings
 The light emerging from the two slits is
coherent since a single source produces the
original light beam
 This is a commonly used method
Diffraction
 From Huygens’s
principle we know
the waves spread
out from the slits
 This divergence of
light from its initial
line of travel is
called diffraction
Young’s Double-Slit
Experiment: Schematic
 Thomas Young first
demonstrated interference
in light waves from two
sources in 1801
 The narrow slits S1 and S2
act as sources of waves
 The waves emerging from
the slits originate from the
same wave front and
therefore are always in
phase
Resulting Interference Pattern
 The light from the two slits
forms a visible pattern on a
screen
 The pattern consists of a
series of bright and dark
parallel bands called
fringes
 Constructive interference
occurs where a bright
fringe occurs
 Destructive interference
results in a dark fringe
 Active Figure 37.2
 Use the
active figure
to vary slit
separation
and the
wavelength
 Observe the
effect on the
interference
pattern
Interference Patterns
 Constructive interference
occurs at point P
 The two waves travel the
same distance
 Therefore, they arrive in
phase
 As a result, constructive
interference occurs at this
point and a bright fringe is
observed
Interference Patterns, 2
 The lower wave has to
travel farther than the
upper wave to reach point
P
 The lower wave travels
one wavelength farther
 Therefore, the waves arrive
in phase
 A second bright fringe
occurs at this position
Interference Patterns, 3
 The upper wave travels
one-half of a wavelength
farther than the lower wave
to reach point R
 The trough of the upper
wave overlaps the crest of
the lower wave
 This is destructive
interference
 A dark fringe occurs
Young’s Double-Slit
Experiment: Geometry
 The path difference, δ,
is found from the tan
triangle
 δ = r2 – r1 = d sin θ
 This assumes the paths
are parallel
 Not exactly true, but a
very good approximation
if L is much greater than
d
Interference Equations
 For a bright fringe produced by constructive
interference, the path difference must be
either zero or some integral multiple of the
wavelength
 δ = d sin θbright = mλ
 m = 0, ±1, ±2, …
 m is called the order number
 When m = 0, it is the zeroth-order maximum
 When m = ±1, it is called the first-order maximum
Interference Equations, 2
 When destructive interference occurs, a dark
fringe is observed
 This needs a path difference of an odd half
wavelength
 δ = d sin θdark = (m + ½)λ
 m = 0, ±1, ±2, …
Interference Equations, 4
 The positions of the fringes can be measured
vertically from the zeroth-order maximum
 Using the blue triangle
 ybright = L tan qbright
 ydark = L tan qdark
Interference Equations, final
 Assumptions in a Young’s Double Slit
Experiment
 L >> d
 d >> λ
 Approximation:
 θ is small and therefore the small angle approximation
tan θ ~ sin θ can be used
 y = L tan θ ≈ L sin θ
λL
 For bright fringes ybright  m (m  0,  1,  2 )
d
Uses for Young’s Double-Slit
Experiment
 Young’s double-slit experiment provides a
method for measuring wavelength of the light
 This experiment gave the wave model of light
a great deal of credibility
 It was inconceivable that particles of light could
cancel each other in a way that would explain the
dark fringes
Intensity Distribution: Double-
Slit Interference Pattern
 The bright fringes in the interference pattern
do not have sharp edges
 The equations developed give the location of only
the centers of the bright and dark fringes
 We can calculate the distribution of light
intensity associated with the double-slit
interference pattern
Intensity Distribution,
Assumptions
 Assumptions:
 The two slits represent coherent sources of
sinusoidal waves
 The waves from the slits have the same angular
frequency, ω
 The waves have a constant phase difference, φ
 The total magnitude of the electric field at any
point on the screen is the superposition of the
two waves
Intensity Distribution,
Electric Fields
 The magnitude of each
wave at point P can be
found
 E1 = Eo sin ωt
 E2 = Eo sin (ωt + φ)
 Both waves have the
same amplitude, Eo
Intensity Distribution,
Phase Relationships
 The phase difference between the two waves
at P depends on their path difference
 δ = r2 – r1 = d sin θ
 A path difference of λ (for constructive
interference) corresponds to a phase
difference of 2π rad
 A path difference of δ is the same fraction of
λ as the phase difference φ is of 2π
2π 2π
 This gives φ  δ d sin θ
λ λ
Intensity Distribution,
Resultant Field
 The magnitude of the resultant electric field
comes from the superposition principle
 EP = E1+ E2 = Eo[sin ωt + sin (ωt + φ)]
 This can also be expressed as
φ  φ
EP  2Eo cos   sin  ωt  
2  2
 EP has the same frequency as the light at the slits
 The magnitude of the field is multiplied by the
factor 2 cos (φ / 2)
Intensity Distribution,
Equation
 The expression for the intensity comes from
the fact that the intensity of a wave is
proportional to the square of the resultant
electric field magnitude at that point
 The intensity therefore is
 πd sin θ  2  πd 
I  Imax cos 
2
  Imax cos  y
 λ   λL 
Light Intensity, Graph
 The interference
pattern consists of
equally spaced fringes
of equal intensity
 This result is valid only
if L >> d and for small
values of θ
Lloyd’s Mirror
 An arrangement for
producing an interference
pattern with a single light
source
 Waves reach point P either
by a direct path or by
reflection
 The reflected ray can be
treated as a ray from the
source S’ behind the mirror
Interference Pattern from a
Lloyd’s Mirror
 This arrangement can be thought of as a
double-slit source with the distance between
points S and S’ comparable to length d
 An interference pattern is formed
 The positions of the dark and bright fringes
are reversed relative to the pattern of two real
sources
 This is because there is a 180° phase change
produced by the reflection
Phase Changes Due To
Reflection
 An electromagnetic wave
undergoes a phase
change of 180° upon
reflection from a medium
of higher index of
refraction than the one in
which it was traveling
 Analogous to a pulse on
a string reflected from a
rigid support
Phase Changes Due To
Reflection, cont.
 There is no phase
change when the wave
is reflected from a
boundary leading to a
medium of lower index
of refraction
 Analogous to a pulse on
a string reflecting from a
free support
Interference in Thin Films
 Interference effects are commonly observed
in thin films
 Examples include soap bubbles and oil on water
 The various colors observed when white light
is incident on such films result from the
interference of waves reflected from the two
surfaces of the film
Interference in Thin Films, 2
 Facts to remember
 An electromagnetic wave traveling from a medium
of index of refraction n1 toward a medium of index
of refraction n2 undergoes a 180° phase change
on reflection when n2 > n1
 There is no phase change in the reflected wave if n2 <
n1
 The wavelength of light λn in a medium with index
of refraction n is λn = λ/n where λ is the
wavelength of light in vacuum
Interference in Thin Films, 3
 Assume the light rays are
traveling in air nearly
normal to the two surfaces
of the film
 Ray 1 undergoes a phase
change of 180° with respect
to the incident ray
 Ray 2, which is reflected
from the lower surface,
undergoes no phase
change with respect to the
incident wave
Interference in Thin Films, 4
 Ray 2 also travels an additional distance of 2t
before the waves recombine
 For constructive interference
 2nt = (m + ½)λ (m = 0, 1, 2 …)
 This takes into account both the difference in optical
path length for the two rays and the 180° phase
change
 For destructive interference
 2nt = mλ (m = 0, 1, 2 …)
Interference in Thin Films, 5
 Two factors influence interference
 Possible phase reversals on reflection
 Differences in travel distance
 The conditions are valid if the medium above
the top surface is the same as the medium
below the bottom surface
 If there are different media, these conditions are
valid as long as the index of refraction for both is
less than n
Interference in Thin Films, 6
 If the thin film is between two different media,
one of lower index than the film and one of
higher index, the conditions for constructive
and destructive interference are reversed
 With different materials on either side of the
film, you may have a situation in which there
is a 180o phase change at both surfaces or at
neither surface
 Be sure to check both the path length and the
phase change
Interference in Thin Film, Soap
Bubble Example
Newton’s Rings
 Another method for viewing interference is to
place a plano-convex lens on top of a flat glass
surface
 The air film between the glass surfaces varies in
thickness from zero at the point of contact to
some thickness t
 A pattern of light and dark rings is observed
 These rings are called Newton’s rings
 The particle model of light could not explain the origin
of the rings
 Newton’s rings can be used to test optical lenses
Newton’s Rings,
Set-Up and Pattern
Problem Solving Strategy with
Thin Films, 1
 Conceptualize
 Identify the light source
 Identify the location of the observer
 Categorize
 Be sure the techniques for thin-film interference
are appropriate
 Identify the thin film causing the interference
Problem Solving with Thin
Films, 2
 Analyze
 The type of interference – constructive or destructive – that
occurs is determined by the phase relationship between the
upper and lower surfaces
 Phase differences have two causes
 differences in the distances traveled
 phase changes occurring on reflection
 Both causes must be considered when determining constructive
or destructive interference
 Use the indices of refraction of the materials to determine the
correct equations
 Finalize
 Be sure your results make sense physically
 Be sure they are of an appropriate size
Michelson Interferometer
 The interferometer was invented by an
American physicist, A. A. Michelson
 The interferometer splits light into two parts
and then recombines the parts to form an
interference pattern
 The device can be used to measure
wavelengths or other lengths with great
precision
Michelson Interferometer,
Schematic
 A ray of light is split into
two rays by the mirror
Mo
 The mirror is at 45o to the
incident beam
 The mirror is called a
beam splitter
 It transmits half the light
and reflects the rest
Michelson Interferometer,
Schematic Explanation, cont.
 The reflected ray goes toward mirror M1
 The transmitted ray goes toward mirror M2
 The two rays travel separate paths L1 and L2
 After reflecting from M1 and M2, the rays
eventually recombine at Mo and form an
interference pattern
 Active Figure 37.14
 Use the active figure
to move the mirror
 Observe the effect
on the interference
pattern
 Use the
interferometer to
measure the
wavelength of the
light

PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Michelson Interferometer –
Operation
 The interference condition for the two rays is
determined by their path length difference
 M1 is moveable
 As it moves, the fringe pattern collapses or
expands, depending on the direction M1 is
moved
Michelson Interferometer –
Operation, cont.
 The fringe pattern shifts by one-half fringe
each time M1 is moved a distance λ/4
 The wavelength of the light is then measured
by counting the number of fringe shifts for a
given displacement of M1
Michelson Interferometer –
Applications
 The Michelson interferometer was used to
disprove the idea that the Earth moves
through an ether
 Modern applications include
 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
 Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave
Observatory (LIGO)
Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy
 This is used to create a high-resolution
spectrum in a very short time interval
 The result is a complex set of data relating
light intensity as a function of mirror position
 This is called an interferogram
 The interferogram can be analyzed by a
computer to provide all of the wavelength
components
 This process is called a Fourier transform
Laser Interferometer Gravitational-
Wave Observatory

 General relativity predicts the existence of

gravitational waves
 In Einstein’s theory, gravity is equivalent to a
distortion of space
 These distortions can then propagate through
space
 The LIGO apparatus is designed to detect the
distortion produced by a disturbance that
passes near the Earth
LIGO, cont.
 The interferometer uses laser beams with an
effective path length of several kilometers
 At the end of an arm of the interferometer, a
mirror is mounted on a massive pendulum
 When a gravitational wave passes, the
pendulum moves, and the interference
pattern due to the laser beams from the two
arms changes
LIGO in Richland, Washington