Chapter 1

Introduction
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Communicate  sharing information

local remote
Local  face-to-face
Remote  over a distance
Telecommunication means communication at a distance.
Data refers to information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission medium such as a
wire cable.
Communicating devices hardware (physical equipment)
and software (programs)
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
 Effectiveness of data communications system depends on
four fundamental characteristics:
 Delivery  correct destination. Received by the

intended device or user and only by that device or user.

 Accuracy  deliver the data accurately. Data altered in

transmission and left uncorrected is unusable.

 Timeliness  deliver data in a timely manner. Late

data is useless. In case of video/audio, timely delivery

means delivering data as they are produced, in the
same order that they are produced, and without
significant delay real-time transmission.
 Jitter variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven

delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.

 Data communication system – 5 components
 Message  information (data) to be communicated
text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
 Sender device that sends the data message  a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera
 Receiver device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television
 Transmission medium  the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver  twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable and radio waves.
 Protocol set of rules that goven data communications.
An agreement between the communicating devices.
Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but
not communicating
Components of a data communication system
Data Representation

 Text  represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or

1s). Each set representing text symbols code. The process
of representing symbols coding Prevalent coding system
Unicode - uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character
used in any language in the world. American Standard Code
for Information Interchange (ASCII) constitutes the first 127
characters in Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin.

 Numbers  also represented by bit patterns  the number is

directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations
 Data Representation
 Images represented by bit patterns. Composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the
pixel depends on the resolution. Better resolution more memory is
needed to store the image.
 Each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. Image made of only black-and-
white dots (chessboard), a 1-bit pattern is enough to represent a pixel.
 Methods to represent color images  RGB, YCM

 RBG  each color is made of a combination of three primary

colors: red, green, and blue. The intensity of each color is

measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it.
 YCM  a color is made of a combination of three other primary

colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.

 Audio recording/broadcasting of sound/music continuous signal
 Video  recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie  can be a
continuous entity or a combination of images, each a discrete entity,
arranged to convey the idea of motion
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
• Simplex
 Unidirectional communication. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
 Egs. Keyboards (input) and traditional monitors (output).
 Entire capacity of the channel used to send data in one
direction.
• Half Duplex
 Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can
only receive, and vice versa.
 Entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever
of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
 Eg. Walkie-talkie
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
• Full-duplex/duplex
 Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
 Signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link with signals going in the other direction.
 Sharing occurs in two ways:
 Either the link must contain two physically separate
transmission paths, one for sending and the other for
receiving; or
 the capacity of the channel is divided between signals
traveling in both directions.
 Eg. telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time.
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
NETWORKS

• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as

nodes) connected by communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
• A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium
which can transport a signal carrying information.
• Distributed Processing - a task is divided among
multiple computers. Instead of one single large machine
being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate
computers (usually a personal computer or workstation)
handle a subset.
 Network Criteria
 Performance
 Measured based on transit time (amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to another) and response time (elapsed time between
an inquiry and a response)
 Depends on a number of factors  number of users, type of transmission
medium, capabilities of connected hardware, and efficiency of the software.
 Evaluated by two networking metrics: Delay and Throughput
 need more throughput and less delay

 Reliability
 Measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from
a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
 Measured in terms of availability/robustness
 Security
 Protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery.
 Errors
 Malicious users
Physical Structures
 Types of Connection - two possible types of connections:
 Point to Point

 Dedicated link between 2 devices  Single transmitter and receiver

 Entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those
two devices.
 Mostly use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends,
other options include microwave or satellite links
 Changing television channels by infrared remote control  point-to-
point connection between the remote control and the television's
control system.
 Multipoint/multidrop

 more than two specific devices share a single link  multiple

recipients of single transmission
 The capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially (several devices
can use the link simultaneously) or temporally (users take turns in a
timeshared connection)
Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
Physical Structures
 Physical Topology - the way in which a network is laid out
physically  2 or more devices connect to a link; 2 or more links
form a topology
 Topology - is the geometric representation of the relationship of
all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another.
 There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring
Topology
 Mesh - every device has a dedicated point-to-point link
to every other device.
 Dedicated - link carries traffic only between the 2
devices it connects.
 To find the number of physical links in a fully connected
mesh network with n nodes
 Each node must be connected to every other node.
 Node 1 connected to n-1 nodes, node 2 connected to n-1 nodes,
node n connected to n - 1 nodes n(n - 1) physical links.
 If each physical link allows duplex mode  divide the number
of links by 2  we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links.
 To accommodate that many links, every device on the network
must have n – 1 input/output ports to be connected to the other
n - 1 stations.
Topology
Mesh Advantages
 Use of dedicated links guarantees that
each connection can carry its own
data load  eliminates the traffic
problems that can occur when links
must be shared by multiple devices.
 Robust  If one link becomes
unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system
 Privacy or security  When every message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical
boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages.
 Point-to-point links - fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This
facility enables the network manager to discover the precise
location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.
Topology
 Mesh Disadvantages - related to the amount of cabling
and the number of I/O ports required
 Every device connected to every other device 
installation and reconnection are difficult.
 Bulk of the wiring > than what the available space (in
walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
 Hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and
cable)  expensive.
 Implemented in a limited fashion, eg., as a backbone
connecting the main computers of a hybrid network that
can include several other topologies.
 Connection of telephone regional offices  each
regional office connected to every other regional office
Topology
 Star - each device has a dedicated point-to-point link
only to a central controller, usually called a hub. The
devices are not directly linked to one another.
 Does not allow direct traffic between devices.
 The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants
to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller,
which then relays the data to the other connected device
Topology
Star Advantages
 Less expensive than a mesh topology  each device
needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any
number of others.
 Makes it easy to install and reconfigure.

 Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions,

moves, and deletions involve only one connection:
between that device and the hub.
 Robustness  if one link fails, only that link is affected.
All other links remain active  easy fault identification
and fault isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can
be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective
links.
Topology
Star Disadvantages
 Dependency of the whole topology on one single point

 hub  if the hub goes down, the whole system is

dead.
 Each node must be linked to a central hub  more
cabling is required in a star than in other topologies (ring
or bus).

Where is it used?
 Used in local-area networks (LANs)

 High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a

central hub.
Topology
 Bus – multipoint  one long cable acts as a backbone to
link all the devices in a network
 Nodes connected to bus cable by drop lines and taps.

 Drop line  connection running between the device

and the main cable.
 Tap  connector that either splices into the main cable
or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact
with the metallic core.
Topology
 Bus – As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its
energy is transformed into heat  weakens as it travels
farther and farther  there is a limit on the number of
taps a bus can support and on the distance between those
taps.
Bus Advantage
 Ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along
the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by
drop lines of various lengths  uses less cabling than
mesh or star topologies.
First topology used in the design of early local area
networks. Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology  less
popular
Topology
Bus Disadvantages
 Difficult reconnection and fault isolation. Designed to be

optimally efficient at installation  difficult to add new

devices.
 Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in

quality  controlled by limiting the number and spacing

of devices connected to a given length of cable
Adding new devices may therefore require
modification or replacement of the backbone.
 A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission 
the damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of
origin, creating noise in both directions.
 Topology
 Ring – each device has a dedicated point-to-point
connection with only the 2 devices on either side of it.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from

device to device, until it reaches its destination.

 Each device in the ring  repeater  regenerates the
bits and passes them along.
Prevalent when
IBM introduced its
local-area network
Token Ring. Need
for higher-speed
LANs has made this
topology less
popular
Topology
Ring Advantages
 Easy to install and reconfigure  each device is linked
to only its immediate neighbors To add or delete a
device requires changing only two connections.
 Fault isolation is simplified.

 A signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not

receive a signal within a specified period  alarm 

alerts the network operator to the problem and its
location.
Ring Disadvantages
 unidirectional traffic  a break in the ring (disabled

station) can disable the entire network  solved using a

dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.
Topology
 Hybrid

A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

Network Models
 Standards needed  heterogeneous networks can communicate
 2 standards  OSI model and the Internet model.
 The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model  seven-layer
network
 The Internet model  five-layer network
Categories/Types of Networks
 2 primary categories: Local-area networks and Wide-area
networks.
 Category  determined by its size, geographical coverage and
ownership.
 LAN  area less than 2 miles; a WAN  worldwide.
 Networks of a size in between  Metropolitan area networks
and span tens of miles.
Categories of Networks
 Local Area Networks (LANs)
 Short distances - limited to a few kilometers

 Designed to provide local interconnectivity - links

devices in a single office, building, or campus

 Privately owned

 Resources shared between personal computers or

workstations  includes hardware (printer), software

(application program), or data.
 Each host has an identifier address that uniquely

defines the host in the LAN.

 Packet sent from one host to the other  carries

source host and destination host’s address.

 Common LAN topologies  bus, ring, and star.
Categories of Networks
 Local Area Networks (LANs)
 Initially common cable  packet was received by all

the hosts on the LAN  intended recipient kept the

packet whilst
others dropped it.

 Today  smart connecting switch  packet sent only

to intended recipient.
 LANs are connected to
each other and to WANs
to create communication
at a wider level.
 Categories of Networks
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
 Long distance transmission of data, image, audio and video
 Provide connectivity over large geographical areas  state,
country, a continent, or even the whole world
 Interconnects connecting devices  switches, routers, modems
 Created and run by communication companies and leased by an
organization that uses it.
LAN WAN
Limited in size, spanning an Wider geographical span, spanning a
office, a building, or a campus. town, a state, a country or even the
world.
LAN interconnects hosts. WAN interconnects connecting devices
such as switches, routers or modems.
LAN is normally privately owned WAN is normally created and run by
by the organization that uses it. communication companies and leased by
an organization that uses it.
 Categories of Networks
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
 2 types  Point-to-point WAN and Switched WAN
 Point-to-point WAN
 Network that connects 2 communicating devices through a transmission
media (cable or air)

 Switched WAN
 Network with more than 2 ends.
 Backbone of global
communication.
 Combination of several
point-to-point WANs, connected
by switches.
Categories of Networks

 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

 Size between a LAN and a WAN

 Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a

campus
 Designed for customers  high-speed connectivity to

the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or

part of city.
 Telephone Company Network

 Cable TV Network
Categories of Networks
 Internetwork - When 2 or more networks are connected, they
make an internetwork, or internet. An
internetwork
made of two
LANs and one
WANs

A heterogeneous
network made of four
WANs and three LANs
Switching
 An internet is a switched network  switch connects at least
2 links. 2 types  circuit switched and packet switched
 Circuit-Switched Network
 Dedicated connection (circuit) available between the 2
end systems
 Switch makes it active
and inactive.
 High capacity communication line handling 4 voice
communications simultaneously; capacity shared
 Switch has forwarding tasks but no storing capability.
 If all 4 people on one side are talking to the 4 on the
other side  capacity of line fully used. If one person
talking to the other  only ¼ of the capacity is used.
 Efficient only when working at its full capacity.
 Circuit Switching
 When a telephone call is made  the switching
equipment physical path  from your
telephone to the receiver's telephone  Circuit
Switching
Circuit Switching

 A dedicated path between

both ends exists and will
continue to exist until the
call is finished.
 No congestion after setup
Message Switching
 No physical path 
established in advance
 Block of data sent 
stored in the first
switching office (i.e.,
router)  forwarded later
 Each block  received in
its entirety, inspected for
errors, and then
retransmitted  Store-
and-forward network
Message Switching

 No limit on block size

 routers must have disks to buffer long blocks.
 a single block can tie up a router-router line
for minutes  useless for interactive traffic

Packet switching was invented

Switching
 Packet-Switched Network
 Communication between the 2 ends is done in blocks of
data called packets  exchange of individual data
packets between 2 computers.
 Switches function for both storing and forwarding 
packet can be stored and sent later.
 Router  has a
queue that can store
and forward the packet.
 Packet switched network
is more efficient but
packets may encounter some delays.
Packet Switching
 Individual packets sent  no dedicated
path set up in advance.
 Each packet finds its way to the
destination on its own.
 Upper limit on block size packets are
buffered in router main memory instead
of on disk.
 No user can monopolize any
transmission line very long
(milliseconds) interactive traffic
 The first packet of a multipacket
message can be forwarded before the
second one has fully arrived  reduces
delay and improves throughput
Comparison of circuit-switched and packet-
switched networks
ITEM CIRCUIT PACKET
SWITCHED SWITCHED
Call Setup Required Not needed
Dedicate physical path Yes No
Each packet follows the same route Yes No
Packets arrive in order Yes No
Is a switch crash fatal Yes No
Bandwidth available Fixed Dynamic
Time of possible congestion At setup time On every packet
Potentially wasted bandwidth Yes No
Store-and-forward transmission No Yes
Charging Per minute Per packet
 THE INTERNET
• An internet is two or more networks that can
communicate with each other. The most notable internet
is called the Internet  more than hundreds of
thousands of interconnected networks.
• Internet  came into being in 1969.
• Top level  backbones 
large networks owned by
communication companies
like Sprint, Verizon, AT&T
Connected through
complex switching systems
called peering points.
 THE INTERNET
• Second level  smaller networks called provider networks 
use the services of the backbones for a fee. Connected to
backbones and sometimes to other provider networks.
• Customer networks are networks at the edge of the Internet. Use
the services provided by the Internet. They pay fees to provider
networks for receiving services.
• Backbones and provider networks
are also called Internet Service
Providers (ISPs).
• Backbones  International ISPs
• Provider Networks  National
or Regional ISPs.
 THE INTERNET - History
 Communication networks (telegraph and telephone)
before 1960  suitable for constant rate communiation.
 After a communication was made between 2 users,
encoded message could be exchanged.
 Computer network should be able to handle bursty data
 data received at variable rates at different times 
packet switched network had to be invented.
 Packet switching  Leonard Kleinrock (1961) at MIT.
Also Paul Baran (Rand Institute) and Donald Davies
(National Physical Laboratory) published papers about
packet switched networks.
 THE INTERNET - History
• Mid 1960s  The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in
the Department of Defense (DoD)  interested in finding a way to
connect computers so that the researchers could share their findings
 reduced costs and eliminating duplication of effort.
• 1967 at Association of Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting,
ARPA presented ideas for ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network) which was a small network of connected computers
 each host computer would be attached to a specialized computer -
Interface Message Processor (IMP).
• IMPs  connected to one another  to communicate with other
IMPs as well as with its own attached host.
• 1969  ARPANET was a reality  4 nodes  University of
California (Los Angeles) (UCLA), the University of California (Santa
Barbara) (UCSB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI) and the
University of Utah, connected via the IMPs to form a network.
• Software - Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication
between the hosts.
PROTOCOLS
Protocol  rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate
devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
govern data communications.
Simple communication  one protocol
Complex communication  divide the task between different layers
 protocol at each layer  protocol layering.
Maria and Ann are neighbours.
Communication  face-to-face,
Same language, one layer
Rules are followed by Maria and Ann.
  Maria and Ann are far apart  Confidential communication.
 Assume 3 machines on each side with each one performing a
certain function.
 Maria sends first letter to Ann  talks to Machine at Layer 3
as if talking to Ann. Layer 3 machine listens and creates plain
text letter and passes to second layer machine. Second layer
machine encrypts and passes to Layer 1 machine. Layer 1 puts
in envelope adds addresses and mails it.
 At Ann’s side  Layer 1 picks letter from mailbox, takes the
encrypted letter from envelope, delivers it to the second layer
machine. Layer 2 machine
decrypts and creates plain text
and passes to Layer 3 machine.
Third layer machine takes
plain text and reads it as
though Maria is speaking.
 Protocol layering - Advantages
 Protocol layering  divides a complex task into several smaller
and simpler tasks.
 If one machine was used to do the job of all 3 machines and if
Maria and Ann felt that the encryption/decryption was not enough
to keep the secrecy of their data, they only need to change second
layer machine  Modularity  independent layers.
 A layer (module) is defined as a black box with inputs and outputs
without concern about how inputs are changed to outputs.
 Protocol layering  allows us to separate the services from the
implementation. A layer receives a set of services from the lower
layer and gives the service to the upper layer.
 Protocol layering  communication does not always use only 2
end systems – there are intermediate systems which use only some
layers . Without layering , the intermediate systems would be as
complex as the end systems  expensive.
 Protocol layering - Disadvantages
 Single layer would make the job easier. No need for each layer to
provide service to upper layer and give service to the lower layer.
 Change would mean replacing the whole machine.

Principles of Protocol layering

 First Principle
 For bi-directional communication, we need to make each layer so

that it is able to perform 2 opposite tasks, one in each direction.

3rd layer  listen (in one direction) and talk (in other direction)
2nd layer  encrypt / decrypt
1st layer  send / receive mail
 Second Principle
 Two objects under each layer at both sides should be identical

3rd layer  plain text at both sides

2nd layer  encrypted text at both sides
1st layer  a piece of mail at both sides.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
A set of protocols organized in different layers each
providing a specific functionality.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 A communicates with
B5 devicesSource
host A, link layer switch
in link 1, router, link layer
switch in link 2,
destination host B.
 Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on
the role of the device in the internet.
 2 hosts  5 layers  source creates a message in the
application layer and sends it down the layer so that its is
physically sent to the destination. Destination host receives
message through the physical layer and sends it up to the
application layer.
 Router  3 layers  used only for routing.
 Link-layer switch  2 layers
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Duty of Application, Transport, Network is end-to-end 

domain of duty is the internet  data unit/packet should
not be changed by routers or link layer switches.
 Duty of Data Link, Physical is hop-to-hop. (hop is a host or
router)  domain of duty is the link  packet created by
the hosts is changed only by the routers, not by link-layer
switches.
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Router may fragment packets at the Network Layer and

may send more packets than received.
 Logical connection at Network Layer is between 2 hosts,
identical objects exist between 2 hops.
Physical Layer
 Responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across
the link
 Communication between the 2 devices at the physical
layer is logical because there exists a hidden layer,
transmission media, under the physical layer  2 devices
are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).
 This medium does not carry bits  carries electrical or
optical signals.
 Bits received in a frame from the Data Link Layer are
transformed and sent through the transmission media.
 Logical unit between 2 physical layers in 2 devices is a bit.
 Protocol used to transform a bit to a signal.
 Data Link Layer
 Internet comprises of several links (LANs and WANs) connected by
routers.
 Several overlapping set of links that can be used for a datagram to
travel from source to destination.
 Routers choose the best link.
 The Data Link Layer is responsible for taking the datagram and moving
it across the link.
 The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, wireless LAN,
wired WAN or a wireless WAN.
 Data link layer is responsible for moving the packet through the link.
 TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the Data link layer 
supports any standard or proprietary protocol.
 Protocol should take the datagram, and carry it through the link  DLL
take a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called frame.
 Each link-layer protocol provides different services  error detection
and correction or only error correction.
 Network Layer
 Responsible for creating a connection between the source computer and
the destination computer.
 Communication is host-to-host  many routers in the path  job of the
routers is to select the best route for the packet.
 NL responsible for Host-to-host communication and routing the packet
through possible routes.
 Why was routing not left to he transport layer?  separation of different
tasks between different layers  routers do not need the application and
transport layer. Separating the tasks allow us to use fewer protocols on
the routers.
 Main protocol  Internet Protocol (IP)  defines the format of the
packet  called a datagram.
 IP also defines the format and structure of addresses used in this layer.
 IP – responsible for routing a packet from source to destination 
wherein each router forwards the datagram to the net router in its path.
 IP  connectionless protocol  no error control, no flow control and no
congestion control services.
 Network Layer
 NL  also includes unicast and multicast routing protocols.
 NL protocols that help IP in its delivery and routing tasks.
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) helps IP to report some problems when
routing a packet.
 IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol) helps IP in multitasking.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) helps IP to get the network-layer address
for a host.
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) helps IP to find the link-layer address of a host or a
router when its network-layer address is given.

Transport Layer
 Logical connection at transport layer is end-to-end.
 TL at the source host gets the message from the application layer,
encapsulates it in a transport layer packet (segment or user datagram)
and sends it through the logical connection to the TL at the destination
host.
 TL – responsible for giving services to application layer  gets message
from an application program running on the source host and delivers it to
the corresponding application program on the destination host.
 Transport Layer
 TL is independent of the application layer.
 There is more than one protocol in the TL  application program can
use the protocol that best matches its requirement.
 Main protocol – Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)  connection-
oriented protocol that first establishes a logical connection between
transport layers at 2 hosts before transferring data.
 TCP provides flow control, error control and congestion control.
 2nd protocol – User Datagram Protocol (UDP)  connectionless
protocol that transmits user datagrams without first creating a logical
connection  each user datagram is an independent entity without
being related to the previous or the next one.
 UDP does not provide flow control, error control and congestion
control  simple, small overhead, used to send short messages.
 3rd protocol – Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) –
responds to new applications that are emerging in multimedia.
 Application Layer
 Logical connection between 2 applications is end-to-end.
 The 2 application layers exchange messages between each other as
though there were a bridge between the 2 layers.
 Communication at AL is between 2 processes (2 programs running)  a
process sends a request to the other process and receives a response
 process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer.
 AL in the Internet  predefined protocols and also the user can create a
pair of processes to be run at the 2 hosts.
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) – vehicle for accessing the World Wide Web
(WWW).
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) - main protocol in email service..
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – used to transfer files from one host to another.
 TELNET (Terminal Network) and SSH (Secure Shell) – used for accessing a site
remotely.
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) – used by an administrator to manage
the Internet at global and local levels.
 DNS (Domain Name System) - used by other protocols to find the network layer
address of a computer.
 IGMP ( Internet Group Management Protocol) – used to collect membership in a group.
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
 Encapsulation at the source host
 Application layer  data is referred to as message. Message
normally does not contain header or trailer. Goes to transport
layer.
 Transport layer  adds transport layer header to the message

(payload). Header contains the identifiers of the source and

destination application programs that want to communicate
plus information needed for end-to-end delivery of the
message (flow control,
error control or congestion
control). TL packet is called
segment (TCP) and
user datagram
(UDP). Passes
to the network
layer
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
 Encapsulation at the source host
 Network layer  takes transport layer payload and adds its
own header. Header contains address of source and
destination hosts and other information related to error
checking, fragmentation, etc. NL packet is called datagram.
Passes the packet to the data link layer
 Data Link Layer  adds its own header containing the link

layer addresses of the host or the next hop (the router). Link
layer packet is called
frame. Frame is passed
to the physical layer for
transmission.
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
 Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the router
 Bits delivered to the data link layer  DLL decapsulates the
datagram from the frame and passes it to the network layer.
 Network layer  inspects the source and destination address

in the datagram header, checks the table to find the next hop
to which the datagram is to be delivered. Contents of
datagram not changed unless there is need to fragment the
datagram. The datagram
is passed to the data link
layer of the next link.
 DLL of the next link

encapsulates the
datagram in a
frame and passes
it to the physical
layer for
transmission.
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
 Decapsulation at the destination host
 Each layer decapsulates the packet received, removes payload
and delivers the payload to the net higher layer protocol until
the message reaches the Application Layer.
 Decapsulation in the host involves error checking.
 The OSI Model
 International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards.
 ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) Model. Introduced in the late
1970s.
 Open system  set of protocols that allow any 2
different systems to communicate regardless of
their underlying architecture  shows how to
facilitate communication between different systems
without requiring changes to the logic of the
underlying hardware and software.
 The OSI Model
 Layered framework for the design of network
systems that allows communication between all
types of computer systems.
 Consists of 7 separate but related layers  each
defines a part of the process of moving information
across the network.
OSI v/s TCP/IP
 Session and Presentation Layer missing in TCP/IP protocol
suite. Application layer is considered to be the combination
of 3 layers (Session, Presentation, Application)  2 reasons
 TCP/IP has more than one transport layer protocol. Some

functionalities of the session layer are available in some

of these transport layer protocols.
 Application layer is not only one piece of software.

Many applications can be developed at this layer. If

some of the functionalities
from session and
presentation layer are
needed for a particular
application, they can be
included in the
development of that
software.
Applications of Networks - Uses
 Business applications

 Resource sharing  eg. Printer, information

sharing
Servers / clients  client server model

 Communication medium  email, report writing,

video conferencing, ordering of goods
electronically (business – suppliers), shopping
online (ecommerce)
 Applications of Networks - Uses
 Home applications
 Access to remote information (through remote database)

 Surfing WWW for information, newspaper/magazine,

journals
 Online digital library  journals, conference

proceedings
 Person to person communication

 Email (audio, video, text, pictures)

 Chatroom ( multiperson version)  real time

 Newsgroups  not real time, messages saved for later

 Peer-to-peer communication

 Telephone calls, video phone, internet radio, tele-

learning
Applications of Networks - Uses
 Home applications
 Interactive entertainment

 Video-on-demand

 Interactive movies / live television

 Game playing (simulation games, etc.)

 Electronic commerce

 Home shopping

 Financial institutions  pay bills, manage bank

accounts, handle investments

 Online auctions (peer to peer)  consumer to

consumer
Applications of Networks - Uses
 Forms of e-commerce
 B2C  business to consumer  eg. ordering
books online
 B2B  business to business  eg. Car
manufacturer ordering tyres from supplier
 G2C  government to consumer  eg. Govt.
distributing tax forms electronically
 C2C  consumer to consumer  eg.
Auctioning second-hand products
 P2P  Peer to peer  eg. file sharing
Applications of Networks - Uses
 Mobile Users
 Notebook, PDA  wireless networks  portable

office

 Difference between wireless networks and mobile

computing
 Fixed wireless and Mobile wireless

Wireless Mobile Applications

No No Desktop computers in
the office
No Yes A notebook computer
used in a hotel
Yes No Networks in older,
unwired buildings
Yes Yes Portable Office, PDA
Applications of Networks - Uses
 Mobile Users
 Vending machines
 PDA merger mobile phone  WAP  m-
commerce
 Meter reading
 Mobile maps
 Smoke detectors
 Weather forecasts