Chapter 4

Traffic Engineering Studies

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 Trafficstudies may be grouped

into three main categories:
 (1) Inventories,
 (2) Administrative studies, and

 (3) Dynamic studies.

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(1) Inventories:
provide a list or graphic display of
existing information, such as:
 street widths,
 parking spaces,
 transit routes,
 traffic regulations.
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(2) Administrative studies

 use existing engineering records,
available in government agencies and
departments.
 include the results of surveys, which
may involve:
 field measurements and/or
 aerial photography.
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(3) Dynamic traffic studies

 involve the collection of data under
operational conditions and
 include studies of:
 speed,
 traffic volume,
 travel time and delay,
 parking, and
 crashes.
 They are described in detail in this chapter.
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 4.1 SPOT SPEED STUDIES

 Spot speed studies are conducted to

estimate the distribution of speeds of
vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular
location on a highway.
 carried out by recording the speeds of a
sample of vehicles at a specified location.
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 SPOT SPEED STUDIES

Used to:
 Establish parameters for

traffic operation and control, such as:

 speed zones,
 speed limits (85th-percentile speed)
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 4.1.1 Locations for Spot Speed Studies
 Represent different traffic conditions on a
highway for basic data collection.
 Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight,
level sections of rural highways for speed
trend analyses.
 Any location may be used for solution of a
specific traffic engineering problem.
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 4.1.1 Locations for Spot Speed Studies

Should be selected to achieve the following:

 Unbiased data
 Drivers be unaware

 Equipment concealed from the driver,

 Observers inconspicuous.
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 4.1.1 Locations for Spot Speed Studies
 statistical analysis,

 statistically adequate number of vehicle

speeds be recorded.
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 4.1.2 Time of Day and Duration of
Spot Speed Studies
 depends on the purpose of the study.
 recommended when traffic is free-flowing,

 during off-peak hours.

 typically:
 the duration is at least 1 hour and
 the sample size is at least 30 vehicles.
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 4.1.3 Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

 The larger the sample size, will give an
estimated mean within acceptable error
limits.
 Average Speed
 Median Speed
 Modal Speed
 The ith-percentile Spot Speed
 Pace
 Standard Deviation of Speeds
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 4.1.4 Methods for Conducting Spot

Speed Studies
 manual and automatic
 manual method is seldom used
 automatic devices
1. road detectors
2. radar-based
3. the principles of electronics.
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 Road Detectors
 pneumatic road tubes & induction loops
collect data on speeds & volume at the
same time
 Advantage:
 Human errors are considerably reduced
 Disadvantages:
 expensive
 may, affect driver behavior,
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 Pneumatic road tubes
 laid across the lane in which data are to be
collected.
 When moving vehicle passes over, an air
impulse is transmitted to the counter.
 two tubes are placed across the lane, 2 m
apart.
 An impulse is recorded when the front
wheels of a moving vehicle pass over the
first tube;
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 Pneumatic road tubes

 a second impulse is recorded when the
front wheels pass over the second tube.
 The time elapsed between the two
impulses and the distance between the
tubes are used to compute the speed of
the vehicle.
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 inductive loop
 a rectangular wire loop buried under the
roadway surface.
 It operates on the principle that a
disturbance in the electrical field is created
when a motor vehicle passes across it.
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 Radar-Based Traffic Sensors

 Electronic-Principle Detectors
 traffic characteristics, such as speed,
volume, queues, and headways are
computed.
 Using video image processing
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RTMS Deployed in the Forward Looking Mode) a(

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RTMS Deployed in the Side-fire Mode) b(

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(a) Schematic Illustration

of the Auto scope
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(b) The Auto scope Deployed
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 4.1.5 Presentation and Analysis of

Spot Speed Data
 Statistical methods
 Analyzing data
 frequency histogram
 cumulative frequency distribution curve
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 Example 4.2 Determining Speed

Characteristics from a Set of Speed
Data.
Table 4.2 shows the data collected on a rural
highway in Virginia during a speed study.
Develop the frequency histogram and the
frequency distribution of the data and
determine:
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1. The arithmetic mean speed

2. The standard deviation
3. The median speed
4. The pace
5. The mode or modal speed
6. The 85th-percentile speed
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 Solution:
 The speeds range from 34.8 to 65.0 km/h,
giving a speed range of 30.2.
 For eight classes, the range per class is 3.75
km/h;
 for 20 classes, the range per class is 1.51 km/h.
 It is convenient to choose a range of 2 km/h per
class which will give 16 classes.
 A frequency distribution table can then be
prepared, as shown in Table 4.3.
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Table 4.2 Speed Data Obtained on a Rural Highway

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Figure 4.4 Histogram of Observed Vehicles' Speeds

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Table 4.3 Frequency Distribution Table for Set of Speed Data

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Figure 4.5 Frequency Distribution

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Figure 4.6 Cumulative Distribution

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 The median speed 49 km/h,

the 50th-percentile speed.
 85th-percentile speed is 54 km/h
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 4.2 VOLUME STUDIES

1. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
the average of 24-hour counts collected
every day of the year.
2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
the average of 24-hour counts collected
over a number of days greater than one
but less than a year.
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 4.2 VOLUME STUDIES

3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
the maximum number of vehicles that pas
a point on a highway during a period of 60
consecutive minutes.
4. Vehicle Classification (VC) with respect
to the type of vehicles for cars, two-axle
trucks, or three-axle trucks.
5. Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT)
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 4.2.1 Methods of Conducting

Volume Counts
 Manual Method
 Automatic Method
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Figure 4.7 Jamar Traffic Data Collector TDC-1 2 Hooked to a Computer

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Figure 4.9 Apollo Traffic Counter/Classifier

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Figure 4.10 Example of Counters that Require the Laying of Subsurface Detectors
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Figure 4.11 Traffic Eye Universal System

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Figure 4.12 Example of Station Locations for a Cordon Count

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 4.2.2 Types of Volume Counts

 Depending on the anticipated use of the
data to be collected.
 Intersection Counts
 vehicle classifications,
 through movements,
 turning movements.
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 4.2.2 Types of Volume Counts

 Pedestrian Volume Counts
 Periodic Volume Counts (AADT)
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 4.2.3 Traffic Volume
Data Presentation
 Traffic Flow Maps:
volume of traffic on
each route is
represented by the
width of a band.
Figure 4.13 shows a
typical traffic flow map.

Figure 4.13 Example of a Traffic Flow Map

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Intersection Summary
Sheets:

Figure 4.14 shows a

typical intersection
summary sheet.

Figure 4.14 Intersection Summary Sheet

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 4.2.3 Traffic Volume Data

Presentation
 Time-Based Distribution Charts:
see Figure 4.15
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Daily
variations:
see Figure
4.15b

Figure 4.15 Traffic Volumes on an Urban Highway (A&B)

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Hourly
variations
in traffic
volume:

Figure 4.15 Traffic Volumes on an Urban Highway (C)

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Summary Tables:
PHV, Vehicle Classification (VC), and
ADT. See Table 4.4

Table 4.4 Summary of Traffic Volume Data for a Highway Section

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 Adjustment of Periodic Counts

 Expansion Factors from Continuous
Count Stations.
 Hourly expansion factors (HEFs) are
determined by the formula
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 Daily expansion factors (DEFs) are

computed as

 Monthly expansion factors (MEFs) are

computed as
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Table 4.5 Hourly Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road
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Table 4.6 Daily Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road
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Table 4.7 Monthly Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road
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 4.3 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY

STUDIES
 Travel time: time required to travel from
one point to another on a given route.
 the locations, durations, and causes of
delays.
 good indication of the level of service
 identifying problem locations,
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 4.3.1 Applications of Travel Time and

Delay Data
 efficiency of a route
 locations with relatively high delays
 causes for delays
 before-and-after studies
 relative efficiency of a route
 travel times on specific links
 economic studies
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 4.3.2 Definition of Terms Related to

Time and Delay Studies

1. Travel time: time taken by a vehicle to

traverse a given section of a highway.
2. Running time: time a vehicle is actually in
motion
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 4.3.2 Definition of Terms Related to Time and
Delay Studies

3. Delay time lost due to causes beyond the

control of the driver.
4. Operational delay: delay caused by the
impedance of other traffic.
(for example, parking or unparking
vehicles),
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5. Stopped-time delay
6. Fixed delay: caused by control devices
such as traffic signals, regardless of the
traffic volume
7. Travel-time delay: difference between the
actual travel time and the travel time
obtained by assuming that a vehicle
traverses at an average speed equal to
that for an uncongested traffic flow
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 4.3.3 Methods for Conducting Travel

Time and Delay Studies
 Methods Requiring a Test Vehicle: floating-
car, average-speed, and moving-vehicle
techniques.
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Table 4.8 Speed and Delay Information
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Moving-Vehicle Technique
(moving observer):
 the observer makes a round trip on a test
section Figure 4.16,
 The observer starts at section X-X, drives
the car eastward to section Y-Y,
 turns the vehicle around

 drives westward to section X-X again

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Figure 4.16 Test Site for Moving-Vehicle Method

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Moving-Vehicle Technique.
 following data are collected as
 The time it takes to travel east from X-X to
Y-Y (Te), in minutes
 The time it takes to travel west from Y-Y to
X-X (Tw), in minutes
 The number of vehicles traveling west in
the opposite lane while the test car is
traveling east (Ne)
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Figure 4.16 Test Site for Moving-Vehicle Method

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Moving-Vehicle Technique.
 The number of vehicles that overtake the
test car while it is traveling west from Y-Y
to X-X, that is, traveling in the westbound
direction (Ow)
 The number of vehicles that the test car
passes while it is traveling west from Y-Y
to X-X, that is, traveling in the westbound
direction (Pw)
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Moving-Vehicle Technique.
 The volume (Vw) in the westbound
direction can then be obtained from the
expression:
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 where (Ne Ow Pw) is the number of
vehicles traveling westward that cross
the line X-X during the time (TeTw).
 Similarly, the average travel time in the
westbound direction is obtained from
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 Methods Not Requiring a Test

Vehicle
 License-Plate Observations:
observers at the beginning and end of
the test section.
 Each observer records the last three or
four digits of the license plate of each
car that passes, together with the time
at which the car passes.
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 in the office by matching the times of

arrival at the beginning and end of the
test section for each license plate
recorded.
 difference between these times is the
traveling time of each vehicle.
 average of these is the average
traveling time on the test section.
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 a sample size of 50 matched license

plates.
 Interviews: obtaining information from
people who drive on the study site
regarding their travel times, experience
of delays, requires the cooperation of
the people.
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 ITS Advanced Technologies:

 Advanced technologies
 Cell phones
 GPS satellite system
 technology is used to determine average
speeds and travel times along highways
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4.4 PARKING STUDIES

 Any vehicle will at one time be parked
short time or longer time, provision of
parking facilities is essential
 need for parking spaces is usually very
great in areas of business, residential,
or commercial activities.
 park-and-ride
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 Providing adequate parking space to

meet the demand for parking in the
Central Business District (CBD)
 This problem usually confronts a city
traffic engineer.
 solution is not simple, Parking studies
are used to determine the demand for
and the supply of parking facilities.
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4.4.1 Types of Parking Facilities

 On-Street Parking Facilities
 also known as curb facilities. Parking bays
are provided alongside the curb on one or
both sides of the street.
 unrestricted parking
 unlimited and free
 Restricted parking facilities
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 On-Street Parking Facilities

 limited to specific times for a maximum
duration.
 may or may not be free.
 handicapped parking
 bus stops
 loading bays.
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 Off-Street Parking Facilities

 privately or publicly owned;
 surface lots and garages.
 Self-parking garages
 attendant-parking garages
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4.4.2 Definitions of Parking Terms

1. A space-hour is a unit of parking that
defines the use of a single parking
space for a period of 1 hour.
2. Parking volume is the total number of
vehicles that park in a study area
during a specific length of time, usually
a day.
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3. Parking accumulation is the number of

parked vehicles in a study area at any
specified time.
4. parking load the number of space-hours
used during the specified period of time.
5. Parking duration length of time a vehicle is
parked at a parking indication of how
frequently a parking space becomes
available.
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6. Parking turnover rate of use of a

parking space.

Obtained by dividing the parking

volume for a specified period by the
number of parking spaces.
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4.4.3 Methodology of Parking Studies

 Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities
 detailed listing of the location and all other
relevant characteristics of each legal
parking facility, private and public.
 The study area includes both on- and off-
street facilities.
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 Type and number of parking spaces at each
parking facility
 Times of operation and limit on duration of parking,
if any
 Type of ownership (private or public)
 Parking fees, method of collection
 Restrictions
 Other restrictions, loading and unloading zones,
bus stops, taxi ranks
 Permanency
 The inventory should be updated at regular
intervals of about four to five years.
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4.4.3 Methodology of Parking Studies

 Collection of Parking Data
 Accumulation:
 by checking the amount of parking during
regular intervals on different days of the week.
 Carried out on an hourly or 2-hour basis
 used to determine hourly variations of parking
and peak periods of parking demand.
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 Collection of Parking Data

 Turnover and Duration:
 collecting data on a sample of parking spaces
in a given block.
 recording the license plate of the vehicle
parked on each parking space in the sample at
the ends of fixed intervals during the study
period.
 The length of the fixed intervals depends on
the maximum permissible duration.
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 Turnover and Duration:
 For example, if the maximum permissible
duration of parking at a curb face is 1 hour, a
suitable interval is every 20 minutes.
 If the permissible duration is 2 hours, checking
every 30 minutes would be appropriate.
Turnover is then obtained from the equation
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Figure 4.17 Parking Accumulation at a Parking Lot

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 Parking Demand
 by interviewing drivers at the various parking
facilities
 Interview all drivers using the parking facilities
on a typical weekday between 8:00 a.m. and
10:00 p.m.
 Information include (1) trip origin, (2) purpose
of trip, (3) driver’s destination after parking.
 the location of the parking facility, times of
arrival and departure, vehicle type.
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 Parking Demand
 Parking interviews also can be carried out
using the postcard technique,
 about 30 to 50 percent of the cards distributed
are returned.
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