Control

Level 1
Fundamentals Training
1
RMT Sales Training - 05 /98 Phase I - Control Fundamental
Contents 2
Topics: Slide No:

• Process Control Terminology 3 - 10
• Control Principles 11 - 18
• Basic Control Loop 19 - 23
• Advance Control Loop 24 - 31
• Control Algorithm 32 - 46
• Control System 47 - 54
• Exercise 55 - 59
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

Process Control Terminology 3
What is a PROCESS ?
Any operation or sequence of operations involving a
change in the substance being treated.
Examples:
A change of energy state - hot to cold, liquid to
gas
A change of composition - a chemical reaction
A change of dimension - grinding coal
Types of PROCESS VARIABLE:
Pressure Specific Gravity of liquid
Flow Density
Level Mass
Temperature Conductivity
Liquid Interface Composition
Moles

What is a CLOSED LOOP ?

A combination of instruments or functions that are
interconnected to measure and control a process
variable with feedback.
input output
PROCESS
FINALCONTROL A System MEASUREMENT

ELEMENT with
Feedback
CONTROLLER

What is a TRANSDUCER
• A device that registers a non-electrical parameter (eg.

process variable) and outputs a corresponding useable
electrical signal.
– Pressure to Capacitance
– Pressure to Resistance or mV
– Temperature to Resistance
– Temperature to mV
• Example:
– Capacitance pressure sensor module
– Piezo-resistive pressure sensor module
– RTD
– Thermocouple

What is a TRANSMITTER
• A device that will translate the transducers interpretation

of the measured variable into a standard transmission
signal.
– 3 - 15 psi pneumatic signal
– 4-20 mA dc electrical signal
– 1-5 V dc electrical signal

ADVANTAGE OF 4-20mA CURRENT SIGNAL

• Lower installation cost
– simple, twisted pair wiring
• Better noise immunity
– current vs. voltage
• Insensitive to wire resistance
– current vs. voltage
• Better suited for hazardous locations
– intrinsic safety

What is a CONTROLLER ?
• Used to keep a process variable at a desired value (set
point).
– Closed loop vs. Open loop control
• Difference: Open loop control has no feedback
– Control Modes
• ON/OFF (Binary)
• Proportional (P)
• Proportional-plus-Integral (PI)
• Proportional-plus-Integral-plus-Derivative (PID)

What is a SIGNAL ?
• An event that conveys data from one point to another.
What is an INDICATOR ?
• An instrument which visually shows the value of the variable.
What is a RECORDER ?
• An instrument that makes and displays a continuous graphic, acoustic
or magnetic record of a measured variable.
What is a DCS ?
• Distributed Control System consisting of functional integrated
subsystems. The subsystems are connected by a communication
linkage (eg) data bus,data highway.
What is a FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT?

• The last control element in the process control loop
that manipulates the process variable.
– Control Valves
» modulates flow rate
» operated by actuator
– Louvers and Dampers
» operated by pneumatic actuators
– Variable Speed Drives
» operated by electronic control signals
 4 - 20 mA

Control Principle 11

FEED PRODUCT
PROCESS
CORRECTING MEASURING
UNIT UNIT
PV
O/P CONTROLLING
UNIT SP OPERATOR
Control theory can be encapsulated as the matching of a

measured variable (PV) to the plant requirement (SP).
A controller implements a Control Algorithm so that an output
signal (O/P) activates a correcting unit. The ratio of output signal
(O) to input signals (I) is Gain (K).
Proportional band 1 % = 100 % = I x 100%

K Gain O
• Process Variable (PV)

– the actual measurement of the state of the process
• Set Point (SP)
– the desired state of the process variable
• Control Algorithm
– the predefined response of the controller to PV-SP
• Controller Output (O/P)
– a signal determined by the control algorithm
• Offset
– the value of PV-SP when the system is in equilibrium
• Direct Acting Controllers
– as the value of the measured variable increases, the
output of the controller increases.
• Reverse Acting Controllers
– as the value of the measured variable increases, the
output of the controller decreases.

Inherent Regulation
• A plant possesses inherent
regulation when, in the absence
of a controller, equilibrium is re-
established after a disturbance.
– For example, a tank with constant
inflow is in equilibrium.
– The outflow valve is then opened
a little more.
– The outflow pressure decreases
as the tank level falls until inflow
again equals outflow.
– Manipulation of the outflow valve
result in different, unique
equilibrium states.

Instrument Symbols
Example Instruments
TT Temperature Transmitter I/P Current-to-Pressure

Transducer
FIC Flow Indicating Controller PT Pressure Transmitter
TE Temperature Element P/P Pressure-to-Pressure

(Thermocouple, RTD) Transducer
Instrument Location
Local Panel Front Panel Rear,
Mounting Mounting or Rack Mounting

Instrument Symbols
Letter Designations
First Letter Succeeding Letters
Measured or Modifier Readout or Output
Initiating Passive Function
Variable Function
A Analysis Alarm
C User's Choice Control
D User's Choice Differential
F Flow Rate Ratio
(Fraction)
I Current Indicate
(Electrical)
L Level Light
P Pressure, Point (Test
Vacuum Connection)
Q Quantity Integrate,
Totalize
R Radiation Record
T Temperature Transmit
V Vibration Valve, Damper,
Louver

Signal Types (ISA)
Connection to Process,
Instrument Supply,
or Direct Mechanical Link
Pneumatic Signal
Electric Signal

Controller Types
• Pneumatic
• Analog
• Digital
– Single Loop Controllers
– Distributed Control System
– Fieldbus Control System

Basic Control Loop 19
Pressure Control Loop
I/P PIC • Pressure Loop Issues:

– May be a Fast Process
» Liquid
» Small Volume
– May Require Fast Equipment
PT

Temperature Control Loop

• Temperature Loop Issues:
– Fluid response slowly to change in input heat
– Requires advanced control strategies
» Feedforward Control
Load
Disturbance
TIC
Cold
Water
I/P
TT
Steam
Hot
Water
Flow Control Loop

• Flow Loop Issues:
– May be a Very Fast Process
» “Noise” in Measurement Signal
• May Require Filtering
» May Require Fast-Responding Equipment
– Typically Requires Temperature Compensation
I/P FIC
FT TT

Level Control Loop (Inflow)
I/P LIC
• Level Loop Issues:

– Control At Inflow or Outflow
– Non-Self Regulating
LT

Level Control Loop (Outflow)
LIC I/P
LT

Advance Control Loop 24
What is CASCADE CONTROL ?

Consist of one controller (primary, or master) controlling the variable
that is to be kept at a constant value, and a second controller
(secondary, or slave) controlling another variable that can cause
fluctuations in the first variable. The primary controller positions the
set point of the secondary, and it, in turn, manipulates the control
valve.
Primary Secondary
Multi-Variable Control
controller controller
r1 r2 m Disturbance
FBC FBC
Secondary Primary
c1 c2 Process Process

Example of CASCADE CONTROL

The temperature of the liquid in the vessel is controlled by
regulating the steam pressure in the jacket around the vessel.
Temperature Temperature
transmitter Measurement
controller
IN Output
Measurement Pressure
Jacket controller
Pressure
transmitter
Valve
OUT Steam
SINGLE-LOOP CONTROL Cascade Control Loop

Implementing Cascade Control

Cold
Steam Water
Header TIC
RSP
_ FC
I/P
Major Load B:
Steam Header
Pressure TT
FT
Steam
Major Load A:
Hot Outflow Rate
Water (Demand)
Condensate
Load B Load A
(Header Pressure) (Demand)
SP RSP Steam Flow Temperature

TIC FC
Process Process
_ _
FT
TT
cascade2

What is FEED FORWARD CONTROL ?

Applies to a system in which a balance between supply and
demand is achieved by measuring both demand potential and
demand load and using this data to govern supply. It gives a
smoother and stable control than feedback control.
Multi-Variable Control Steam
Feedwater
FT
FT LT
Flow Boiler
Feed
controller SP
PV O/P Level forward
indicating
controller
SP

Implementing Feedforward Control
Feedforward Summing
Equations Junction
FFD
Feedforward
Loop
Feedback
Loop
FT
TIC
Cold
Water
I/P
TT
Steam
Hot
Water
feedfwd2

Figure 1-34. Feedforward Plus Feedback Trim in a Temperature Process
What is RATIO CONTROL ?

An uncontrolled flow determines a second flow so that a desired ratio
is maintained between them.
The ratio factor is set by a ratio relay or multiplying unit which would be
located between the wild flow transmitter and the flow controller set
point. Flow B is controlled in a preset ratio to flow A.
Controlled Controlled
flow, B flow, B
Remote - Ratio
Wild Ratio Output = A x ratio Wild flow, A
set controller
flow, A relay
SP controller SP
Output Output
Example of RATIO CONTROL

Pickling Process
Acid
 supply
Set
Measurement
Manual
water FT Flow FC
transmitter
regulator Magnetic
flowmeter
Water Flow A Flow B
Control valve
Pickle tank
Other Application : Fuel/air ratio control system on
combustion equipment, e.g. boilers.
What is SELECTIVE CONTROL ?

The more important condition between two or more candidates is
selected. They are used mainly to provide protection to a piece of
equipment which could suffer damage as a result of abnormal
operating conditions.
Low select
RS O/P
O/P Speed
Control PIC
PIC
O/P PV
PV
Pump

Control Algorithm 32
• On/Off
• Multi-step
• Proportional
• Integral
• Derivative

On-Off Control
It is a two-position control, merely a switch arranged to be off
(or on as required) when the error is positive and on (or off as
required) when the error is negative. Ex.. Oven & Alarm control.
Measured
differential
variable
Controller
output
Time

Multi-Step Action
A controller action that may initiate more than two positioning of
the control valve with respect to the respective predetermined
input values.
8
5
8
0
7
5
Time
4
3
2
1
Time
Multi-step action

Proportional Action (P)

It is the basis for the 3-mode controller. The controller output (O/P)
is proportional to the difference between Process Variable (PV)
and the Set Point (SP).
Process
Load
SP
PV
Controller
Output
Open-loop response of proportional mode

Proportional Action (P) O/P %

100
The Algorithm is :

- (PV - SP)
+ Constant
50
O/P =
Proportional
Band
(Constant is normally 50% ) S - PV
Tan  = Gain = 100 / Proportional Band
When a disturbance alters the process away from the set-point, the
controller acts to restore initial conditions. In equilibrium, offset (PV-
SP = constant) results.
PV
Many controllers have a ‘manual
Time
reset’. This enables the operators
to manipulate the ‘constant’ term Recovery time Offset
of the algorithm to eliminate offset. SP
Time
Low Proportional Gain: (Closed Loop)

100
90
80 SP
70 E0 E1 E2 E3 E4
60
PV
% 50
40
Output
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
prop Time
Figure 9-2. Low Proportional Gain Response in a Closed Loop

High Proportional Gain: (Closed Loop)

100
90
PV
80 SP
70
60
% 50
40
30
20
Output
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
higain
Time
Figure 9-3. High Proportional Gain Response in a Closed Loop

Integral Action (I)

Whilst PV  SP, the controller operates to restore equality.
As long as the measurement remains at the set point, there is no
change in the output due to the integral mode in the controller.
The output of the controller changes at a rate proportional to the offset.
The integral time gives indication of the strength of this action. It is the
time taken for integral action to counter the ‘offset’ induced by
Proportional Action alone.
Set
%
Set Point
Measurement
Point RT
RT = Reset Time min./rpt
a{
% Output b{ a=b
Open-loop
response
Time Time
Integral mode Proportional plus Integral mode

Integral Action: (Closed Loop)

100
90
80 SP
70
60
PV
% 50
40 Proportional
Plus Integral
30 Output
20
10 Proportional
Response
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time

Derivative Action (D)

As the PV changes, the controller resists the change.
The controllers output is proportional to the rate at which the
difference between the measured and desired value changes.
The derivative time is an indication of this action. It is the time that
the open-loop P+D response is ahead of the response due to P only.
Set
%
Set Point
Measurement
Point DT = Derivative Time (min)
DT
% Output Proportional only
(I/D)
Open-loop
Time
Time response
Proportional + Derivative
Derivative mode Proportional plus Derivative mode

PID Action: (Closed Loop)

100
90
80 SP
70
60
PV PID Output
% 50
40
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time

PID Control
80
% Scale Range
Measurement
60
A
40
20
Proportional
Controller Output
Valve Position
Proportional +
Integral
or
Proportional + Integral +
Derivative
Time - minutes
Open-loop response of three-mode controller

P & ID Piping & Instrumentation Drawing
Compressed Air Pipe
Converter
I/P PIC PID
Controller
Pneumatic
Control PT Pressure
Valve
Transmitter
P
Process Vessel
Fluid Pump

Controller Selection
Start
Step change in
valve travel
Use Can offset be Yes Use

PID tolerated ? P-only
No
63.2 Reaction curve
% of measured
Yes
variable
Is dead time No Is noise Yes Use C

excessive ? present ? P+I
Capacity
Dead Time
No Time (sec)

Controller Adjustment
Period
Controlled Variable
P-only
PID
PI
Time
Control loop Proportional band Time constant Derivative
Flow High (250%) Fast (1 to 15 sec) Never
Level Low Capacity dependent Rarely
Temperature Low Capacity dependent Usually
Analytical High Usually slow Sometimes
Pressure Low Usually fast Sometimes

Control System 47
Adaptive Control
An automatic control scheme in which the controller is programmed
to evaluate its own effectiveness and modify its own control
parameters to respond to dynamic conditions occurring in or to the
process which affect the controlled variables.
Ex) Digital Controller

- Sensors are run to the computer’s input.
- Servomechanisms are connected to the computer’s output.
- Future changes don’t require re-wiring.
- Changing control functions (P,I, and D) and configurations
(between cascade mode and feedforward mode) will be
made on the computer’s program and not necessarily to any
hardware.

Control System 48
Supervisory Control
A control strategy where the process control computer performs
system control calculations and provides its output to the setpoints
inputs of conventional analog controllers. These analog controllers
actually control the process actuators, not the main-control
computer.
S
SP1 Controller A
Supervisory
M.I.S
Control S
SP2 Controller A
S
SP3
Controller A
Control System 49
Today’s DCS System
Coax
I/O Rack Controller

Tools for Process
Analysis, Diagnostics.
HW and
Software Sampled
Filtering Value
Measurement I/O Rack Controller Tools for Process

Analysis, Diagnostics.

Control System 50
What is a FIELDBUS ?
Definition...
A digital, two-way, multi-drop communication link among
intelligent field devices and automation systems.
Fieldbus (Only Digital Signals)
T
Control room
operator stations
L
Control systems
(DCS or PLC)
F

Control System 51
Fieldbus Control System

Work
Total of approximately 35,000 devices
Systems
(due to address limits) .
Gateway HSE
Controller
124
H2 Bridge
H1 Devices
H1
H1
H1
H1
32 Devices
H1 - 31.25 Kbit/s H1
HSE - 100 M bit/s 32
(Fast Ethernet) Devices
Control System 52
Proprietary Bus
ADVANCED CONTROL OPTIMIZATION
PID PID
AI AI AO
DCS
4 -20 mA
4 -20 mA 4 -20 mA
• Control in the control room

Control System 53
Foundation Fieldbus Devices

Delta V
Built-In Control
Function Anywhere
Blocks
Valve
Transmitter
FIELDVUE
BKCAL_IN BKCAL_OUT
OUT CAS_IN
OUT IN
AI PID AO
• Control in the field with fieldbus

Look at how the CONTROL migrate 54
Central Local Control Control in

Control Loop DCS
Loop the field
FCS
DDC
Digital
PID
PID Digital
Analog Analog
PID PID
Loop 1 Loop 2 Loop 1 Loop 2 Loop 1 Loop 2
Control in the
device itself

Exercise 55
Which defined term is closest to the description or encompasses the

example given?
A. Controller F. Primary element
B. Converter G. Signal
C. Instrument H. Transducer
D. Point of measurement I. Transmitter
E. Process
1. Process temperature increases the measurable

resistance in a monitored electrical circuit. [E ]
2. Pulsed output from a turbine meter. [G ]
3. Heat-injected plastic molding. [F ]

Exercise 56
4. Temperature transmitter. [H ]
5. Device which adjusts the measured value of the

process to the requirements of the operator. [I ]
6. Element, flow transmitter, controller and correcting unit. [C ]
7. A pipe piece is tapped for a sample fluid. [A ]
8. A device changes an industry standard pneumatic

signal to an industry standard hydraulic signal. [B ]

Exercise 57
9. Identify the components indicated by the Arrows.

Exercise 58
Which defined term is closest to the description or encompasses the

example given.
A. Cascade control F. Gain
B. Control algorithm G. Offset
C. Control valve H. Proprietary Bus
D. Feed-forward control I. Smart Device
E. Foundation Fieldbus
10. The predefined response of the controller to PV-SP. [B ]

11. The value of PV-SP when the system is in equilibrium. [G ]
12. The ratio of controller’s output to input. [F ]

13. It is a final control element operated by an actuator. [C ]

Exercise 59
14. Involves master & slave controllers. [A ]

15. The output of the loop drives the input. [D ]
16. A digital communication based control network
with control action in the controller only. [H ]
17. A digital communication based control network that
allow control in the field. [E ]
18. A device that provide both analog & communication
signal in its loop wire pair. [I ]

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Level 1

Topics: Slide No:

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

What is a CLOSED LOOP ?

FINALCONTROL A System MEASUREMENT

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

• A device that registers a non-electrical parameter (eg.

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

• A device that will translate the transducers interpretation

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

ADVANTAGE OF 4-20mA CURRENT SIGNAL

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

What is a FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT?

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

Control theory can be encapsulated as the matching of a

Proportional band 1 % = 100 % = I x 100%

• Process Variable (PV)

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

TT Temperature Transmitter I/P Current-to-Pressure

TE Temperature Element P/P Pressure-to-Pressure

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

Signal Types (ISA)

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

Pressure Control Loop

I/P PIC • Pressure Loop Issues:

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

Temperature Control Loop

Flow Control Loop

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

Level Control Loop (Inflow)

• Level Loop Issues:

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

Level Control Loop (Outflow)

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

What is CASCADE CONTROL ?

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

Example of CASCADE CONTROL

SINGLE-LOOP CONTROL Cascade Control Loop

Implementing Cascade Control

SP RSP Steam Flow Temperature

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

What is FEED FORWARD CONTROL ?

Multi-Variable Control Steam

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

Implementing Feedforward Control

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

What is RATIO CONTROL ?

Example of RATIO CONTROL

What is SELECTIVE CONTROL ?

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control

RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Control