UNIT- II (PART-I)

K.SARAVANAMOORTHY
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
ECE / SSIET

Irfan khan
Signal Degradation in the Optical Fiber
Signal Attenuation
It determines the maximum unamplified or
repeaterless distance between transmitter and
receiver.

Signal Distortion
•Causes optical pulses broaden.
•Overlapping with neighboring pulses, creating errors
in the receiver output.
•It limits the information carrying capacity of a fiber.

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 Attenuation
The Basic attenuation mechanisms in a fiber:

1. Absorption:
It is related to the fiber material.

2. Scattering:
It is associated both with the fiber material
and with the structural imperfections in the
optical waveguide.

3. Radiative losses/ Bending losses:

It originates from perturbation (both
microscopic and macroscopic) of the fiber
geometry. Irfan khan
Example: Absorption by Atmospheric

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 Example: Scattering of light by Atmospheric

The colours of the sky are caused by the scattering of light

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 Attenuation Units

If P(0) is the optical power in a fiber at the origin

(at z=0), then the power P(z) at a distance z

P(z) =P (0) e -αpz

αp = (1/z) ln [P(0) / P(z)] Fiber attenuation coefficient

Attenuation coefficient in units of decibels per kilometer,

denoted by dB/ Km, then

α(dB/km) = (10/z) ln [P(0) / P(z)]=4.343 x αp (km-1)

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Absorption

Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms:

Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms:

1- Impurities in fiber material: from transition metal ions (must be

in order of ppb) & particularly from OH ions with absorption
peaks at wavelengths 2700 nm, 400 nm, 950 nm & 725nm.

2- Intrinsic absorption (fundamental lower limit): electronic

absorption band (UV region) & atomic bond vibration band (IR
region) in basic SiO2.

3- Radiation defects

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Absorption
1. Absorption by atomic defects

Atomic defects are imperfections in the atomic structure

of the fiber material.
Examples:
•Missing molecules
•High density clusters of atom groups
•Oxygen defects in the glass structure.

•Absorption losses arising from these defects are negligible

compared with intrinsic and impurity absorption.

•Can be significant if the fiber is exposed to ionization

radiations.
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1 rad(Si) = 0.01 J/Kg

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Absorption
2. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms
The dominant absorption factor in silica fibers is the
presence of minute quantities of impurities in the fiber
material.
•These impurities include
•OH- (water) ions dissolved in the glass.
•Transition metal ions, such as iron, copper,
chromium and vanadium

Origin :
OH ion impurities in a fiber preform results mainly from the
oxyhydrogen flame used in the hydrolysis reaction of the
SiCl4, GeCl4 and POCl3 starting materials.
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Optical fiber attenuation as a function of wavelength yields nominal values of 0.5 dB/km
at 1310 nm and 0.3 dB/km at 1550 nm for standard single mode fiber. Absorption by the
water molecules causes the attenuation peak around 1400nm for standard fiber. The
dashed curve is the attenuation for low water peak fiber. Irfan khan
Absorption
3. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms

Intrinsic absorption is associated with the basic fiber

material (e.g pure SiO2).

Intrinsic absorption results from:

1. Electronic absorption bands in the ultraviolet region
2. Atomic vibration bands in the near infrared region

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Absorption

1. Electronic absorption (EA) occurs when a photon

interacts with an electron in the valance band and
excites it to a higher energy level. The electronic
absorption is associated with the band gap of the
material. The UV edge of EA follow the empirical
formula
 uv  Ce E / Eo

Ultraviolet absorption decays exponentially with

increasing wavelength and is small compared with
scattering loss in the near infrared region. UV loss in
dB/km at any  as a function of mole fraction x of GeO2 is
154.2 x  4.63 
 uv  10  2 exp  
46.6 x  60   
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2. The inherent infrared absorption is
associated with the vibration frequency of
chemical bond between the atoms of which the
fiber is composed.

An interaction between the vibrating bond and the

electromagnetic field of the optical signal results in a
transfer of energy from the field to the bond and
thereby giving rise to absorption.
This absorption is quite strong because of many bonds
present in the fiber. Example: GeO2-SiO2.
  48.48 
 IR  7.8110  exp 
11

  
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**Optical fiber attenuation characteristics and their limiting mechanisms for a
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GeO2 doped low loss water content silica fiber.
 Absorption

Extrinsic Intrinsic
Atomic Defects
(Impurity atoms) Absorption

Absorption in Absorption in
Ultraviolet region Infrared region

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Scattering Losses

Scattering losses in glass arise from microscopic variation

in the material density from:
1. Compositional fluctuations
2. Inhomogeneities or defects occurring during fiber manufacture

These two effects give rise to refractive index variation,

occurring within the glass over distances that are small
compared with the wavelength.
These index variation cause Rayleigh-type scattering of
the light and inversely proportional to wavelength.
It decreases dramatically with increasing wavelength
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Scattering Losses

Rayleigh scattering in an optical fiber

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 Scattering Losses

Compositional fluctuations Inhomogeneities or defects

in material in fiber

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Radiative losses / Bending Losses

Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes

a bend of finite radius of curvature.
Fiber can be subject to two types of bends:
1. Macroscopic bends
2. Microscopic bends

Macrobending: Light lost from the optical core due to

macroscopic effects such as tight bends being induced in the
fiber itself.

Microbending. Light lost from the optical core due to

microscopic effects resulting from deformation and damage to
the core cladding interface.
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Radiative losses / Bending Losses
• For the slight bends losses are unobservable

• By decreasing radius of curvature we will come to the critical value

after which these losses increase drastically, shown as xc in the fig.

• As we know that the electric/magnetic field have a tail in the cladding

region so by bending the cable we come to the extent where cladding
field should move faster to keep up with the core field.

• As this is not possible so the energy in that region radiates away

• Radiation losses depend on the value of xc and radius of curvature R

• As the lower order modes remain close to the core axis and the higher
modes are closer to the cladding so the higher modes will radiate out of
the fiber first.

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Radiative losses / Bending Losses

Macrobending losses are normally produced by poor

handling of fiber .
Poor reeling and mishandling during installation can
create severe bending of the fiber resulting in small but
important localized losses

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Power loss in a curved fiber
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Radiative losses / Bending Losses
Microbending losses:
It is the radiation loss in optical waveguide results from mode
coupling by random microbends.
Fiber curvature causes repetitive coupling of energy between
the guided modes and the leaky or nonguided modes in the
fiber.

Microbending is a much more critical feature and can be a

major cause of cabling attenuation.
These stresses are very difficult to define, however, they can
be caused by:
• nonuniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber
• nonuniform lateral pressures during cabling
• Low temperatures
• High pressures Irfan khan
Microbending losses
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Minimizing microbending losses:

A compressible jacket extruded over a fiber reduces microbending resulting from

external forces.

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Macrobending due to poor reeling
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Minimum safe bend radius —shown full size Irfan khan
Bends are shown full size — and may have caused damage to the fiber
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Radiative losses / Bending Losses

Making use of bending losses

There are many uses of bending losses which are based on
either the increase in the attenuation or on making use of the
light which escapes from the optic fiber.

A fiber optic pressure sensor

This makes use of the increased attenuation experienced by
the fiber as it bends.

Active fiber detector

This uses the escaping light.

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Pressure causes loss at the bends Irfan khan
Is the fiber in use?
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 Radiative losses/
Bending losses

Macroscopic bends Microscopic bends

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 Attenuation

Scattering Radiative
Absorption Losses losses/ Bending
losses

Extrinsic
Intrinsic Atomic
(Impurity
Absorption Defects
atoms)

Absorption Absorption Inhomogeneities Compositional

in in Microscopic Macroscopic
or defects fluctuations
Infrared Ultraviolet bends bends
in fiber in material
region region

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 Signal Distortion in Fibers
Optical signal weakens from attenuation
mechanisms and broadens due to distortion effects.

Eventually these two factors will cause

neighboring pulses to overlap.
After a certain amount of overlap occurs,
the receiver can no longer distinguish the
individual adjacent pulses and error arise
when interpreting the received signal.

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Pulse broadening and attenuation
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 Dispersion

2 The basic need is to match the output waveform to

the input waveform as closely as possible.

2 Attenuation only reduces the amplitude of the output

waveform which does not alter the shape of the
signal.

2 Dispersion distorts both pulse and analog modulation

signals.

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Dispersion

Dispersion results when some components of

the input signal spend more time traversing the
fiber than other components.

2 In a pulse modulated system, this causes the

received pulse to be spread out over a longer
period.

2 It is noted that actually no power is lost to

dispersion, the spreading effect reduces the
peak power.
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Dispersion

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Dispersion

2 Pulse dispersion is usually specified in terms of

“Nanoseconds-per-kilometer”.

2 The difference in width of an input pulse with the

width of the same pulse at the output, measured in
time, is the dispersion characteristic for that piece of
fiber.

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Dispersion

Dispersion of optical energy within an optical fiber

falls into following categories:

 Intermodal Delay or Modal Delay)

 Intramodal Dispertion or Chromatic Dispersion

Material Dispertion
Waveguide Dispertion

 Polarization –Mode Dispersion

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Dispersion
Intermodal delay/ modal delay

Intermodal distortion or modal delay appears only in

multimode fibers.

This signal distortion mechanism is a result of each mode

having a different value of the group velocity at a single
frequency.

The amount of spreading that occurs in a fiber is a function

of the number of modes propagated by the fiber and length
of the fiber

Group Velocity: It is the speed at which energy in a particular

mode travels along the fiber. Irfan khan
Intermodal delay/ modal delay

The maximum pulse broadening arising from the modal

delay is the difference between the travel time Tmax of the
longest ray and the travel time Tmin of the shortest ray .

This broadening is simply obtained from ray tracing for a

fiber of length L:

∆T= Tmax – Tmin = n1/c ( L/sinøc –L) = (Ln12/cn2)∆

∆T= Tmax – Tmin = (Ln12/cn2)∆

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Intermodal delay/ modal delay
Fiber Capacity:

Fiber capacity is specified in terms of the bit rate-distance

product BL.
(Bit rate times the possible transmission distance L)

For neighboring signal pulses to remain distinguishable at

the receiver, the pulse spread should be less than 1/B.
Or
Pulse spread should be less than the width of a bit period.

∆T < 1 /B General requirement

∆T ≤ 0.1 /B For high performance link

Bit rate distance product BL < n2 c/ n12 ∆

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Light rays with steep incident angles have longer path
lengths than lower-angle rays. Irfan khan
Irfan khan
How to minimize the effect of modal dispersion?
Answer is

1. Graded index fiber

2. Single mode fiber

How to get one mode and solve the problem

V = 2πa / λ x (n12 – n22)1/2 = 2πa / λ x (NA)

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 How to get one mode and solve the problem

we could decrease the number of modes by increasing the

wavelength of the light.

Changing from the 850 nm window to the 1550 nm window

will only reduce the number of modes by a factor of 3 or 4.

Change in the numerical aperture can help but it only

makes a marginal improvement.

We are left with the core diameter. The smaller the core,
the fewer the modes.

When the core is reduced sufficiently the number of modes

can be reduced to just one.
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Step Index Multi-mode

Graded Index Multi-mode

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Q: Consider a 1 Km long multimode fiber in which n 1=
1.480 and ∆ = 0.10 , so that n2= 1.465.
Then find ∆T= ?

Where:
L = 1 Km
n1 = 1.480
n2= 1.465
∆ = 0.10

∆T = (Ln12/cn2)∆
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How to characterize dispersion?
 Group delay per unit length can be defined as:

g d 1 d 2 d
  
2c d
[3-15]
L dω c dk
 If the spectral width of the optical source is not too wide, then the delay
d g
difference per unit wavelength along the propagation path is approximately
For spectral components which are apart, symmetrical around center d
wavelength, the total delay difference over a distance L is:

d g L  d 2 d  
2
      2  
d 2c  d d2 
d d  L   d 2 
     L  [3-16]
d d  V g   d
2


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 d 2
  2  is called GVD parameter, and shows how much a light pulse
d 2
broadens as it travels along an optical fiber. The more common parameter is
called Dispersion, and can be defined as the delay difference per unit length
per unit wavelength as follows:

1 d g d  1 
   2c  2
D  [3-17]
L d d  V g 
  2

 In the case of optical pulse, if the spectral width of the optical source is
characterized by its rms value of the Gaussian pulse   , the pulse
spreading over the length of L,  g can be well approximated by:

d g
g     DL  [3-18]
d
 D has a typical unit of [ps/(nm.km)].

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Dispersion
Intramodal Dispersion or Chromatic Dispersion

This takes place within a single mode.

Intramodal dispersion depends on the wavelength, its effect
on signal distortion increases with the spectral width of the
light source.
Spectral width is approximately 4 to 9 percent of a central
wavelength.

Two main causes of intramodal dispersion are as:

1. Material Dispersion
2. Waveguide Dispersion
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Material Dispersion
Input Cladding
v g ( 1 )
Core Output
Emitter v g ( 2 )
Very short
light pulse

Intensity Intensity Intensity

Spectrum, ² 
Spread, ² 

 t t
1 o 2 0 

All excitation sources are inherently non-monochromatic and emit within a

spectrum, ² , of wavelengths. Waves in the guide with different free space
wavelengths travel at different group velocities due to the wavelength dependence
of n1. The waves arrive at the end of the fiber at different times and hence result in
a broadened output pulse.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

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Intramodal Dispersion or Chromatic Dispersion

Material Dispersion:
This refractive index property causes a wavelength
dependence of the group velocity of a given mode; that is,

Pulse spreading occurs even when different

wavelength follow the same path.

Material dispersion can be reduced:

•Either by choosing sources with narrower spectral
output widths OR
•By operating at longer wavelengths.
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LASER source will produce far less spectral dispersion or intramodal
dispersion than an LED source since it is more nearly monochromatic
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Material Dispersion
 The refractive index of the material varies as a function of wavelength, n ( )
 Material-induced dispersion for a plane wave propagation in homogeneous
medium of refractive index n:

d 2 d 2 d  2 
 mat L  L  L n (  )
dω 2c d 2c d   
L dn 
 n    [3-19]
c d 
 The pulse spread due to material dispersion is therefore:

d mat L  d 2 n
g     2  L  Dmat ( ) [3-20]
d c d

Dmat ( ) is material dispersion

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Material dispersion as a function of optical wavelength for pure silica and
13.5 percent GeO2/ 86.5 percent SiO2.
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Intramodal Dispersion or Chromatic Dispersion

Waveguide Dispersion:

It causes pulse spreading because only part of the optical

power propagation along a fiber is confined to core.
Dispersion arises because the fraction of light power
propagating in the cladding travels faster than the light
confined to core.

Single mode fiber confines only 80 percent of the power in

the core for V values around 2.

The amount of waveguide dispersion depends

on the fiber design.
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Waveguide Dispersion
 Waveguide dispersion is due to the dependency of the group velocity of the
fundamental mode as well as other modes on the V number, (see Fig 2-18 of
the textbook). In order to calculate waveguide dispersion, we consider that n
is not dependent on wavelength. Defining the normalized propagation
constant b as:

 / k  n2
2 2 2
 / k  n2
b  [3-29]
n1  n2
2 2
n1  n2

 solving for propagation constant:

  n2k (1  b) [3-31]

 Using V number:

V  ka(n1  n2 )1/ 2  kan2 2

2 2 [3-33]

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Waveguide Dispersion
 Delay time due to waveguide dispersion can then be expressed as:

L d (Vb) 
 wg  n2  n2 
dV 
[3-34]
c

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

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Signal Distortion in single mode fibers
 For single mode fibers, waveguide dispersion is in the same order of
material dispersion. The pulse spread can be well approximated as:

d wg n2 L  d 2 (Vb)
 wg     L  Dwg ( )  V [3-25]
d c dV 2
Dwg ( )

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

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Polarization Mode dispersion
Intensity
t
Output light pulse
z 
n1 y // y Core Ex

 = Pulse spread
Ex Ey
n1 x // x Ey

t
E
Input light pulse

Suppose that the core refractive index has different values along two orthogonal
directions corresponding to electric field oscillation direction (polarizations). We can
take x and y axes along these directions. An input light will travel along the fiber with Ex
and Ey polarizations having different group velocities and hence arrive at the output at
different times

© 1999 S.O. Kasap,Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

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Polarization Mode dispersion
 The effects of fiber-birefringence on the polarization states of an optical are
another source of pulse broadening. Polarization mode dispersion (PMD)
is due to slightly different velocity for each polarization mode because of
the lack of perfectly symmetric & anisotropicity of the fiber. If the group
velocities of two orthogonal polarization modes are vgx and vgy then the
differential time delay  pol between these two polarization over a
distance L is
L L
 pol   [3-26]
v gx v gy

 The rms value of the differential group delay can be approximated as:

 pol  DPMD L [3-27]

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Chromatic & Total Dispersion
 Chromatic dispersion includes the material & waveguide dispersions.

Dch ( )  Dmat  Dwg

[3-28]
 ch  Dch ( ) L 

 Total dispersion is the sum of chromatic , polarization dispersion and other

dispersion types and the total rms pulse spreading can be approximately
written as:

Dtotal  Dch  D pol  ...

[3-29]
 total  DtotalL 

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Chromatic & Total Dispersion
 Chromatic dispersion includes the material & waveguide dispersions.

Dch ( )  Dmat  Dwg

 ch  Dch ( ) L  [3-28]

 Total dispersion is the sum of chromatic , polarization dispersion and other

dispersion types and the total rms pulse spreading can be approximately
written as:
Dtotal  Dch  D pol  ...
 total  DtotalL 
[3-29]

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Variation in the polarization states of an optical pulse as it passes
through a fiber that has varying birefringence along its length.
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Irfan khan
 Signal Distortion/
Dispersion

Intermodal Delay/ Intramodal Dispersion/ Polarization-mode

Modal Delay Chromatic Dispersion Dispersion

Material Waveguide
Dispersion Dispersion

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 Signal Degradation
in the Optical Fiber

Signal Distortion/ Attenuation

Dispersion

Scattering Radiative
Absorption Losses losses
Intramodal
Intermodal Polarization
Dispersion/
Delay/ -mode
Chromatic
Modal Delay Dispersion Extrinsic
Intrinsic Atomic
Dispersion (Impurity
Absorption Defects
atoms)

Material Waveguide
Absorption Absorption Inhomogeneities Compositional
Dispersion Dispersion in in Microscopic Macroscopic
or defects fluctuations
Infrared Ultraviolet bends bends
in fiber in material
region region

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 Characteristics of Single Mode Fibers

These Characteristics include :

1. Index profile configuration

2. Cutoff wavelength

3. Signal dispersion designations and calculations

4. Mode field diameter

5. Signal loss due to fiber bending.

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SM-fiber dispersions

Typical waveguide dispersion and the common material dispersion

for three different single mode fiber designs.
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SM-fiber dispersions

Resultant total dispersions

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Dispersion Calculation

If tmod, tCD, and tPMD are the modal, chromatic, and polarization
mode dispersion times
Then
Then total dispersion tT can be calculated by the relationship.

Note that tmod = 0 for single-mode fibers.

Where
tcd = |DCD | L ∆λ

tPMD = DPMD (fiber length)1/2

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Mode-field diameter vs wavelength

Typical mode field diameter variations with wavelength for (a) 1300 nm
optimized (b) dispersion shifted and (c) dispersion flattened single mode fibers
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Bending-induced attenuation

Representative increases in single mode fiber attenuation owing to

microbending and macrobending effects
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Bending effects on loss vs MFD

Calculated increase in attenuation at 1310 nm from microbending and

macrobending effects as a function of mode field diameter for (a)
depressed cladding single mode fiber and (b) matched cladding single
mode fiber. Irfan khan
Bend loss versus bend radius

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 International Standards
ITU-T Recommendations for multimode and Single-Mode
Fibers

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Chromatic dispersion as a function of wavelength in various
spectral bands for several different optical fiber types
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Recommendation G.651

Core diameters :
1) 50 µm
2) 62.5 µm
cladding diameters:( For both fibers)
125-µm

Attenuation :
Range form 2.5 dB/km at 850nm to less that 0.6dB/km at 1310 nm

Light source used:

Vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VSSEL) operating at 850 nm

Ethernet links running at data rates up to 10Gb/s over

distance up to 550 m can use multimode fibers
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Recommendation G.652a/b (Standard single mode fiber or 1300nm optimized fiber)
Installed widely in telecommunication networks in the 1990s.

Core diameter: Attenuation :

5 and 8 µm Range form 0.4 dB/km at 1310nm to
Cladding diameter: less that 0.35dB/km at 1550 nm
125µm

Max PMD: 0.2 ps/ km This fiber was optimized to have a zero-
dispersion value at 1310 nm.

With the trend toward operation in the lower-loss 1550-nm spectral

region, the installation of this fiber has decreased dramatically.

If network operators want to use installed G.652 fiber at 1550 nm,

complex dispersion compensation techniques are needed,

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Recommendation G.652c/d (low water peak fiber)
It allows operation in the E-band and are used widely for
fiber to the premises (FTTP) installations.

It is created by reducing the water ion concentration in

order to eliminate the attenuation spike in the 1360 to
1460 nm E-band.

It allow operation over the entire wavelength range from

1260 to 1625 nm

Typically a FTTP link transmits three independent

bidirectional channels at 1310, 1490 and 1550nm over the
same fiber.
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Recommendation G.653 (Dispersion shifted fiber DSF)
It was developed for the use with 1550 nm lasers.
Zero dispersion point is shifted to 1550 nm where the fiber
attenuation is about half that at 1310nm.
But
It presents dispersion related problems in dense wavelength
division multiplexing (DWDM) applications in the centre of the C
band.

Because
To prevent undesirable nonlinear effects in DWDM systems the
chromatic dispersion values should be positive or negative over the
entire operational band.

Therefore
The use of G.653 fibers for DWDM should be restricted to either the
S band or L band
These fibers are seldom deployed anymore Irfan khan
Recommendation ITU-T G.654 (cutoff wavelength shifted fiber )

Designed for long distance high power transmission.

It has zero dispersion wavelength around 1300 nm

wavelength.

It has very low loss in the 1550nm band, which is

achieved by using pure silica core.

It has a high cutoff wavelength of 1500 nm, restricted to

operation in the 1500 to 1600 nm region.

Typically used only in long distance undersea

application.
Irfan khan
Recommendation ITU-T G.655 (Non zero dispersion shifted fiber )

NZDSF was introduced in the mid 1990s for WDM applications.

Principal characteristic:
It has a positive nonzero dispersion value over the entire C-
band, which is the spectral operating region for eribium doped
optical fiber amplifiers.

Version G.655b was introduced to extend WDM application

into the S-band.

Version G.655c specifies a lower PMD value of 0.2 ps√km

than the 0.5 ps/√km value of G.655a/b

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Recommendation ITU-T G.656

It has a positive chromatic dispersion value ranging from 2

to 14 ps/(nm-km) in the 1460 to 1625 nm wavelength band.

Here dispersion slop is significantly lower than in G.655

fibers
Lower dispersion slope:
It means that the chromatic dispersion changes slower
with the wavelength so that dispersion compensation is
simpler or not needed.

This allows
The use of CWDM without chromatic dispersion compensation
and
Also means that 40 additional DWDM channels can be implemented
in this wavelength band.
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 Specialty Fibers
Designed to Manipulate or control some characteristic of an
optical fiber.
The light manipulation applications include:
1. Optical signal amplification
2. Optical power coupling
3. Dispersion compensation
4. Wavelength conversions
5. Sensing of physical parameters:
1. Temperature
2. Stress
3. Pressure
4. Vibration
5. Fluid levels
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Specialty Fibers
Specialty fibers can be of either a multimode or a single mode
design.

Optical devices that may use such fibers are:

1. Light transmitters
2. Light modulators
3. Optical receivers
4. Wavelength multiplexers
5. Light couplers
6. Splitters
7. Optical amplifiers
8. Optical switches
9. Wavelength add /drop modules
10.Optical attenuators Irfan khan
Example of Specialty Fibers and Their Applications

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