Chapter 5

Flow Measurement
 Objectives
After finish this lesson, you will be able to:
• Define flow
• Understand the categories of f/meter
• Expressed the unit of flow
• Able to select the right f/meter
• Understand the principle, operation,
advantages & disadvantages of f/meter
• Understand the f/meter troubleshooting &
maintenance
 Variable area Vortex meter
Mass
flowmeter

Pitot tube
Flow nozzle
 Introduction
• ability to accurately measure & control flow is
essential to maintain the process & maximize
production & product quality
• flow is most difficult process variables to
measure accurately-simplest method;
weight/time
• key parameter for reading values & control
 Categories
• force that causes fluids to flow created by
change of pressure
• Static pressure: pressure exerted by fluids at
the rest
• Dynamic pressure: caused by movement of
fluids
• Differential pressure: pressure difference
between 2 related pressure
 Classification
• Flowmeter can be classified to 4 types:

Volumetric Velocity

Inferential Mass
Volumetric
• such as: positive-displacement meter
• measure volume directly
Velocity
• such as: magnetic, turbine, ultrasonic
meters
• the total flow is determined by
multiplying the velocity by the area
through which the fluid flows
Inferential
• such as: differential pressure, target &
variable area meter
• the flow is inferred by some other
physical properties (e.g. DP) & then
experimentally correlated to flow
Mass
• such as: coriolis mass flowmeter
• these device measure mass directly (how
much liquid flowing through a tube)
 Measurement
• force causes fluids to flow created by
change/difference in pressure
• flow can be defined as a volume of fluid
passing a given point per unit of time
A = cross sectional area
Q =A x V
V = average fluid velocity
• mass flow can be defined as: Flow x density
Parameter Selection
Types of fluid

Flow Profile

Piping

Line size
 Types of fluid

• Viscosity: how freely fluids flow

• easy to flow - low viscosity
• higher viscosity – higher resistance to
flow
• Fluid flow must overcome the resistance
of 2 forces (internal friction & friction
between liquid-wall)
• type of fluid may limit type of device
ovortex meter & DP: liquid, gas & steam
omagnetic meter: conductive fluid
oturbine meter: steam cannot measure
• fluid’s condition (clean/dirty) also is
limitation
• dirty fluid used; devices will
plugged/eroded
 Flow Profile

•Velocity – major effect on the

accuracy & performance flow meter
• shape of velocity profile depends:
o momentum/inertial forces of fluid;
move the fluid through pipe
o viscous forces of the fluid; slow the
fluid as it passes the pipe
• bend, restrictions, roughness – affect the
shape of flow profile
• flow profile classified:

Laminar

Turbulence

Transitional
 Laminar

Turbulence

Transitional
• factor affect flow profile is called
Reynolds number
o Pipe diameter
o Velocity
o Density
o Viscosity
• neglect the roughness of the pipe wall,
which may effect the velocity
distribution & applies to Newtonian fluid
 Piping
• Variances inside diameter upstream &
downstream affect f/meter performance
• control valve located d/stream to avoid
disturbance
• amount of pressure drop (P) –
important consideration in meter
selection
• example:
o DP device: P varies (low to moderate)
o Pitot tube: P low
o Elbow taps: no mentionable pressure loss
o Magnetic f/meter: no pressure loss
• min no of u/stream & d/stream straight
pipe required - abnormal velocity profile
create substantial error
 Line size

• not all measuring device cover all line

sizes
• example: max size vortex meter is
generally 8 inch
FLOW MEASUREMENT
DEVICES

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 Bernoulli
Principle
High speed flow of a fluid is associated with low
pressure and low-speed flow is associated with high
pressure
High speed = pressure low
Low speed = pressure high

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 Differential Pressure Devices
• most common type:

o orifice meter
o venturi tube
o flow nozzle
o elbow
o Pitot tube

• consist primary element (orifice) & secondary

element (DP transmitter)
o To measure the rate of flow by the differential pressure
method, some form of restriction is placed in pipeline to
create a pressure drop.
o Since flow in the pipe must pass through a reduced area,
the pressure before the restriction is higher than after or
downstream. Such a reductionin pressure will cause
an increase in the fluid velocity because the same
amount of flow must take place before the restriction as
after it.

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o Velocity will vary directly with the
flow and as the flow increases a greater
pressure differential will occur across the
restriction.
o So by measuring the differential pressure
across a restriction, one can measure the rate
of flow.

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• Advantages:
• simple, low cost, no moving part, sturdy, wide
selection of range & models;

• Disadvantages:
• low accuracy, affect by wear of the primary element,
high pressure loss
• impulse lines may require a more expensive solution
(venturi & flow nozzle)
• measuring element is mounted above
orifice plate for gas measurement & below
orifice for liquid & steam measurement

• installing secondary element;

o tap connection installed vertically for gases to drain
any condensation back to process
o tap location installed horizontally for steam & liquid
to drain gas bubbles back to process
• DP transmitter equipped 3-valve manifold,
sometimes integral to transmitter
• toxic & hazardous fluids; 5-valve manifold
with drain/vent legs to safe location and
impulse lines are flanged or welded
instead of threaded
 Orifice Plate

 a device used for measuring the volumetric

flow rate.
It uses the same principle namely Bernoulli's
principle which states that there is a
relationship between the pressure of the fluid
and the velocity of the fluid.
When the
velocity increases, the pressure
decreases and vice versa.
 Constructions
• An orifice plate is a thin plate with a
hole in the middle. It is usually placed
in a pipe in which fluid flows.
• often called a square-edged orifice
plate; consists of a flat piece of metal
with a sized holed bored in it, creating
DP across it
• easy to construct, install, inspect,
replace if damaged
• inserted perpendicular to process flow

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• common value used in orifice plate
measurement is the beta ratio
• ratio the inner diameter of orifice divide
inner diameter of pipe; best design &
accuracy: 0.5
• the placement pressure taps is critical to
flow measurement. proper tap placement
provide correct differential pressure
measurement to accurately determine
f/rate
Operations o When the fluid reaches
the orifice plate, with the
hole in the middle, the
fluid is forced to converge
to go through the small
hole.
o The point of maximum
convergence actually
occurs shortly downstream
of the physical orifice, at
the so-called vena
contracta point.

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o As it does so, the velocity and the pressure changes.
o Beyond the vena contracta, the fluid expands and the
velocity and pressure change once again.
o By measuring the difference in fluid pressure between the
normal pipe section and at the vena contracta, the
volumetric and mass flow rates can be obtained from
Bernoulli's equation.

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• most common taps
are flange taps &
vena contracta taps

Tap locations in orifice

installations
• Flange taps: 1 in u/stream & 1 in d/stream, most
common taps especially lines 8 in & smaller,
introduce no disturbance to piping, have
symmetrical locations & compactable in
performance

• Vena contracta taps: 1 diameter u/stream & at vena

contracta d/stream, provide best measurement for
lines 10 in & larger, commonly used for steam,
provide best DP
• position vena contracta varies with flow
• there are 3 types of orifice plate

Concentric bore

Eccentric bore

Segmental bore
 Eccentric

Concentric

Segmental
type 316 SS is most common material used in orifice plate
unless material of higher quality is required of process
condition
 •Is used for ideal liquid as well as
gases and steam service
•Simple-structured with high precision
•Can be easily mounted and
dismounted. In strict conformance
with applicable standards, it is
precisely finished to have required
shape, size, surface roughness and
flatness.
•For differential pressure
measurement, it is combined with
flange taps, vena contracta taps or
corner taps
•The segmental portion of the orifice eliminates
damming of foreign materials on the upstream side
of the orifice when mounted in a horizontal pipe.
•Depending on the type of fluid, the segmental
section is placed on either the top or bottom of the
horizontal pipe to increase the accuracy of the
measurement.
•This is used for colloidal and slurry flow
measurement. For best accuracy, the tap location

should be 180º from the center of tangency .

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•Use full for measuring containing solids, oil containing water and wet steam
•For liquids containing solid particles that are liable to settle, or for vapors liable to
deposite water condensate,
•Is installed with its eccentric bore bottom flush with the bore bottom of the piping,
so that the sedimentation of such inclusions is avoided.
•Likewise, for gases or vapors, it may be installed with its eccentric bore top flush
with the bore top of the piping to avoid the stay of gas or vapor in its vicinity.
•Flange taps or vena contracta taps are used with.

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 Orifice plate advantages Orifice plate disadvantages

• high DP generated • high permanent pressure

• exhaustive data available loss implies higher pumping
• low purchase price & cost
installation cost • cannot used for dirty fluids,
slurries/ wet steam
• easy replacement • the process line is affected
• no moving part & been in the impulse line, potential
researched extensively of freezing & plugging
• capable metering either • accuracy affected by
gases / liquid with high changes density, viscosity,
degree of accuracy temperature
• little maintenance required frequent calibration
 Venturi Tube
• consists a section of pipe with a conical
entrance (typically 20), a short straight
throat & a conical outlet.
• is the most accurate flow-sensing element
when properly calibrated.
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 Operation
 The inlet section decreases the area of the fluid stream,
causing the velocity to increase and the pressure to
decrease.
 The low pressure is measured in the center of the
cylindrical throat since the pressure will be at its lowest
value, and neither the pressure nor the velocity is
changing.
The recovery cone allows for the recovery of pressure
such that total pressure loss is only 10% to 25%. The
high pressure is measured upstream of the entrance
cone.

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the velocity of flow gradually increases as the
fluid passes through the inlet. The result
increases velocity & decrease in pressure

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• pressure taps - measure DP in venturi & usually
positioned at one-half pipe diameter u/stream
inlet cone & middle of throat
• wall & throat venturi are smooth, with no
sudden changes in contour to prevent solids
from becoming trapped
• these design cause venturi better suited for
measurement dirty & slurries
• processing containing solids difficult to
prevent pressure taps becoming plugged
• minimize buildup, venturi is modified to an
eccentric configuration which bottom of
the throat is same horizontal plane as the
bottom of the connecting pipe
• this modifications allow unobstructed
passage of solids through venturi
Eccentric Venturi Tube
 Venturi advantages Venturi disadvantages

• venturi tube will handle • most expensive DP meter,

low-pressure applications, big, heavy for large size,
measure 25-50% more calculated calibration less
flow than comparable accurate than orifice
orifice plate • greater accuracy, each
• venturi less affected by venturi tube has to be flow
wear & corrosion then calibrated by passing known
orifice plate, suited flows through the venturi &
measurement very large recording the resulting DP
water pipes & large air/gas
• DP is lower; high sensitive
ducts, provide better
performance when solid in flow transmitter needed
suspension
 Flow Nozzles
• similar venturi except no recovery cone
• nozzle are restriction consisting elliptical
contoured inlet & cylindrical throat section
• economical, commonly used for steam and
other high velocity fluid flow measurements
where erosion may occur.
• handle high flow measurement with low DP,
permit 60% greater capacity than comparable
plates
 Flow
Nozzles
Flow Nozzle Schematic
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• generally not available sizes under 2 in
• pressure taps located 1D u/stream & 1/2D
d/stream
• suited for measurement of steam flow &
other high velocity fluid flows where
erosion may be a problem
• suited measurement involving slurries
 Elbow
• operates on principle that when a fluid
moves around a curved path, acceleration
of fluid around the curved path creates
centrifugal force
• centrifugal force results in a higher
pressure on outside elbow than inside
elbow, thus DP is produced proportional
square the flow through the elbow
• pressure taps
installed opposite
sides of elbow can
be used to
calculate f/rate
• pressure taps
(measure DP)
located outside &
inside elbow 45
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 Elbow advantages

• low cost
Elbow disadvantages
• easy install
• because most piping • less accurate than head-
configuration contain type measurement device
elbow, taps can installed • develop relatively low DP
economically • unsuitable for flow
• suitable measure very measurement application
large water pipes with low velocity fluids
• ability measure flow
bidirectional
 Pitot tube
• in pitot tube (called insertion DP meter), probe
consisting 2 parts senses 2 pressures: impact
(dynamic) & static
• used to measure fluid flow velocity by
measuring the difference between the static and
dynamic pressures in fluids
• It is widely used to determine the airspeed of
an aircraft and to measure air and gas velocities
in industrial applications.
•The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly
into the fluid flow.
•As this tube contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the
moving fluid is brought to rest (stagnates) as there is no
outlet to allow flow to continue. This pressure is the
stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total
pressure or (particularly in aviation) the pitot pressure.
Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic
pressure

•Impact pressure; sensed with one impact tube bent toward

the flow (dynamic head)
• Static pressure; sensed through a small hole on the side
(static head)

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• low pressure is perpendicular to flow path &
measure the static head
• high pressure tap inserted into the flow stream
& faces directly into flow path
• by measuring DP created, f/rate can be
calculated
• pitot tube causes a negligible pressure loss in
flowing stream, but it difficult to position
properly in the flow stream & subjected to
plugging in slurry application
 Pitot advantages
• easy & quick install
• they can be inserted & removed from
process without shutting down
• simple design & construction
• produce energy saving compared equivalent
orifice
• suited for measure large water pipes &
air/gas ducts
 Turbine meter
• in turbine, a rotor with a diameter almost
equal to the internal pipe is supported by
2 bearings to allow free rotation
• a magnetic pick-up, mounted on the pipe,
detects the passing of the rotor blades,
generating a frequency output
• each pulse represents the passage of a
calibrated amount of the fluid
Axial turbine flowmeter
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• angular velocity is proportional the volumetric
f/rate
• this device is easy to install & maintain, fast
response, compact, lightweight
• not sensitive to changes in fluid density & it can
have pulse output signal to directly operate digital
meters
• not available for steam measurement but some
design will handle steam measurement
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Sensitive to dirt & cannot

• Accurate for size > used for highly viscous fluid
50mm and /varying viscosity
recalibration at fairly flashing/slugs vapor/gas in
the liquid produce blade
frequent internals
wear - poor performance
• Output is directly • Have moving parts;
digital and linear sensitive to wear & can be
damaged by over speeding.
• Moderate head loss
• When installed, bypass
• Compactness piping may required for
maintenance
 Vortex meter
• in vortex, an obstruction/bluff body is placed
across the pipe bore perpendicular to fluid flow
• When fluid passes bluff body, flow is able follow
irregular contour
• create vortex when a liquid flows around a bluff
object
• frequency of vortex shedding directly proportional
to velocity of liquid flowing through the meter
• When flow high, vortex produce increase
• vortex meter generally comprised 3 basic
parts:
o shedder/bluff body
o sensor & signal amplification
o conditioning transmitter
• suitable for flow rate or flow totalization
measurements
• Not suitable for slurries or high viscosity
liquids
• can be made portable by installing the
obstruction through the stuffing boxes
• fairly accurate in higher velocity
liquid/gas, but accuracy decreases when
applied to lower velocity
• simple, unaffected by pipe vibration
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 Operating Principle

 When a fluid stream encounters a rock or another obstruction, it

separates, moves around the object and flows downstream.
At the point of contact, eddy currents or vortex swirls are
formed alternately on either side of the object.
This creates a local increase in pressure and a local decrease in
velocity on one side of the obstruction. Meanwhile, it creates a
local decrease in pressure and a local increase in velocity on the
other side of the object.
After shedding a swirl from one side, the process is reversed and
a vortex or a swirl is shed from the other side.
The frequency of this alternating shedding process is
proportional to the velocity of the flowing stream as it passes the
point of contact.

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 Transducer

Swirl blades Straightening

vanes

Sensor
Flow

Vortex Precession Meter

 Rotameter
• can be used in a variety application (liquid, slurries,
gases)
• variable area f/meter
• based relationship between 2 known factors (one
constant & variable factor – area of f/meter
opening)
• consists of:
o tapered metering tube
o float that is free to move up and down within
the tube
• constructed of glass or metal.
• Flow measured by position of float in tube and
not by differential produced
• When there is no flow through the tube, the float
rests at the bottom.
• When fluid enters, float rises upward in
proportion to fluid flow rate
• Every float position corresponds to one particular
flow rate and no other for a given fluid density
and viscosity.
• reading or calibration scale mounted
on the tube provides a method of
reading flow rate by direct
observation
• Scale must be calibrated for each types
of fluid, design & weight of float
• can be used to measure mass f/rate
involving low viscosity fluids
• simple, handle low f/rate,
inexpensive, self-cleaning, direct
indication
Advantages

o easily maintained readability

o sustained high repeatability
o low pressure loss
o linear scale
o easy to install & maintain
o can serve as a sight glass
o needs no electrical power
 Troubleshooting

Erosion
• particulate, suspended solid/debris will
erode sensing devices
• in orifice, sharp edge most affected
• as material wears away, the DP between
high & low sides sensor will drop & the
flow reading will decrease
 Over range

• over range will damage device

• system pressures are usually much greater
than the DP & 3-valve manifolds must be
correctly used
 Vapor formation in throat

• DP sensors operate on relation velocity &

pressure
• the turbulence created LP side sensor
make reading somewhat unstable
• small amount gas/vapor will make a large
difference in indicated f/rate
• fluctuating press drop across DR will give
erroneously low (even –ve) DP reading
 Clogging of throat

• particulate/suspended solids can

damage flow sensor by high velocities
wearing at the flow sensor surfaces
• built-up material in the throat increases
the DP across cell
• error increase, flow increase
 Plugged/leaking sensing line

• effects plugged/leaking created low DP

• periodic maintenance & bleeding sensing
line is must
• HP side plugged/leaking cause lower
reading
• LP side plugged/leaking cause higher
reading
 Maintenance
• number of factors influence
maintenance requirements & life
expectancy f/meter
• major factor; matching right instrument
to application
• primary element require extensive
piping, valves, fitting when connected
to secondary element
• impulse line can plug/corrode & have to be
cleaned/replace
• improper location of secondary element result
measurement errors; relocating more expensive
• f/meter with moving parts require periodic
internal inspection, especially if liquid is dirty
/viscous
• installing filters help minimize fouling & wear
• pressure sensors associated with secondary
element should be periodically removed &
inspected