Chapter 2: Foundations of

Individual Behavior
 Objectives

1. Identify two types of ability

2. Define the key biographical characteristics.
3. Understand how to shape the behavior of
others.
 Learning theory
 Distinguish between the four schedules of
reinforcement.
 OB Mod
 Ability
• Why we concern
– by knowing how people different in abilities, we may
use the knowledge to increase /enhance people’s
performance

• What is ability
– An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in
a job.
– Made up of two factors: Intellectual and physical

Ability

Intellectual physical
 Intellectual Ability Ability

Intellectual physical

•The capacity to do mental activities—thinking,

reasoning, and problem solving

1. Number aptitude
2. Verbal comprehension
7 Dimensions 3. Perceptual speed
of
Intellectual 4. Inductive reasoning
Ability 5. Deductive reasoning
6. Spatial visualization
7. Memory
 Dimensions of
Intellectual Ability Ability

Intellectual physical
1. Number Aptitude: Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic
2. Verbal Comprehension: Ability to understand what is read or heard and the
relationship of words to each other.
3. Perceptual Speed: Ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly
and accurately.
4. Inductive Reasoning: Ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem and
then solve the problem.
5. Deductive Reasoning: Ability to use logic and assess the implications of
an argument.
6. Spatial Visualization: Ability to imagine how an object would look if its
position in space were changed.
7. Memory: Ability to retain and recall past experiences.
 Intelligence is one of
the predictors Ability

Intellectual physical

1. intelligence is one of the predictors of job

performance.
2. Use IQ test as hiring tools
3. Correlation between intelligence and Job
satisfaction is about zero
 Multiple intelligences
Ability

Intellectual physical

• Intelligences contains four subparts:

cognitive, social, emotional, cultural
– Cognitive: traditional intelligence test.
– Social: ability to relate effectively to others
– Emotional: ability to identify, understand, and
manage emotions.
– Cultural: awareness of cross-culture
differences and the ability to function
successfully in cross-cultural situation.
 Physical Ability Ability

Intellectual physical

• The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina,

dexterity (swiftness or precision), strength, and
similar characteristics.

Flexibility Factors
5. Extent flexibility
Strength Factors 6. Dynamic flexibility
1. Dynamic strength Other Factors
2. Trunk strength 7. Body coordination
3. Static strength 8. Balance
4. Explosive strength 9. Stamina
 The Ability-Job Fit

Ability-Job
Employee’s Job’s Ability
Abilities Fit Requirements

• Performance
Low High inadequate

• Organizational
High Low Inefficiencies
• Reduce Job
satisfaction
 Biographical
Characteristics--Age
• Personal characteristics—such as age, gender, race, length of
tenure—that are objective and easily obtained from personal records.
Age—performance 1. performance declines with increasing age
relationship is important 2. The workforce is aging
3. Outlaw mandatory retirement of US
Age—turnover 1. the older one get, the less likely to quit one’s job
2. Fewer job opportunities
3. Long tenure :higher wage rate, longer paid vacation,
better pension benefits.
Age—absenteeism 1. Lower avoidable absence
2. Higher unavoidable absence
Age-- productivity 1. Employee over 50 were more productivity
2. Unrelated
Age--satisfaction 1. The finding is mixed.
2. Professional—increase.
3. Non-professional—U shape
 Biographical
Characteristics--Gender

• Will the differences between man and women

affect their job performance?

difference No difference
Productivity ◎
Work ◎ when employee has
schedule pre-school children
Turnover ◎
Absence ◎ woman--higher
 Biographical
Characteristics--Race

• Individuals tend to favor colleagues of their

own race in performance evaluation,
promotion decisions, and pay raises.
• African Americans approve affirmative
action to a greater degree than White
• The issue of racial differences in cognitive
ability test---is still on debate
 Biographical
Characteristics--Tenure

• Seniority negatively related to absence.

• Seniority negatively related to turnover.
• Tenure on one’s previous job is a powerful
predictor of the one’s future turnover.
• Tenure positively related to satisfaction.
 Learning & Theories of
learning
• Definition of learning
– Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a
result of experience.

• Theories of learning
• Classical Conditioning: 1990s by Ivan Pavlov
– A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to
some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a
response.
Key Concepts

saliva conditioned stimulus

Unconditioned stimulus

Happy
 Theories of learning
• Operant conditioning
– by psychologist B.F. Skinner (behaviorism)
– A type conditioning in which desired
voluntary behavior leads to a reward or
prevents a punishment.
– better explain voluntary behaviors

Key Concepts
• People will most likely engage in desired behavior
if they are positively reinforced for doing so
• Rewards are most effective if they immediately
follow the desired response
 Theories of learning

• Social learning
– The view that people can learn through
observation and direct experience
Key Concepts
• The influence of model
• Four processes
•Attentional processes
•Retention processes
•Motor reproduction process
•Reinforcement processes
 Shaping Behavior: A
Managerial Tool
Shaping Behavior:
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to desired response.
Four Methods
1. Positive reinforcement: Following a response with something
pleasant
2. Negative reinforcement: Following a response by the termination
or withdrawal of something unpleasant
3. Punishment: Causing unpleasant condition in an attempt to
eliminate an undesirable behavior
4. Extinction: Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a
behavior
 Schedules of
Reinforcement

• Reinforcement Schedule: Continuous

– For newly emitted, unstable, or low-frequency response

Nature of Effect on Example

Reinforcement Behavior
Reward given after each Fact learning of new behavior but Compliments
desired behavior rapid extinction
 Schedules of
Reinforcement
• Intermittent:
– Reinforcing a desired behavior often enough to make the behavior
worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.
– ratio or interval type
– For stable or high-frequency response
Reinforcement Nature of Effect on Example
schedule Reinforcement Behavior
Fixed- Reward given at fixed Average & irregular Weekly
interval time intervals performance with rapid paychecks
extinction
Variable- Reward given at variable Moderately high and stable Pop quizzes
interval time intervals performance with slow
extinction
Fixed ratio Reward given at fixed high and stable performance Piece-rate
amounts of outputs attained quickly but also with pay
rapid extinction
Variable- Reward given at variable Very high performance with Commissione
ratio amounts of outputs slow extinction d sales
 Behavior
Modification
OB Mod
The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in
the work setting

Problem-solving Model
1. Identify critical behaviors
2. Develop baseline data
3. Identify behavioral consequences
4. Apply intervention
5. Evaluate performance improvement
 Problems with OB Mod and
Reinforcement Theory

• OB Mod has been used by a number of org. to

improve productivity, to reduce errors,
absenteeism…and so on.
• Problem with behaviorism
– Assume that people’s inner-most thoughts and
feelings in response to the environment are irrelevant.
– research showing that thoughts and feelings
immediately follow environmental stimuli
• Other approach— cognitive process
 Summary &
Implications
• Three individual variables
– Ability: intellectual & physical
• An effective selection process will improve the fit
• Promotion and transfer decisions should reflect the abilities of
candidates
• The fit can be improved by fine-tuning the job to better match
an incumbent’s abilities.
– Biographical Characteristics: age, race, gender…
• Readily observable
• Doesn’t mean should be explicitly used in management
decision
– Learning
• Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool for modifying
behavior
• Reinforcement is a more effective tool than punishment