Part I

Number Representation
Parts Chapters
1. Numbers and Arithmetic
2. Representing Signed Numbers
I. Number Representation 3. Redundant Number Systems
4. Residue Number Systems

5. Basic Addition and Counting

6. Carry-Look ahead Adders

Elementary Operations
II. Addition / Subtraction 7. Variations in Fast Adders
8. Multioperand Addition

9. Basic Multiplication Schemes

10. High-Radix Multipliers
III. Multiplication 11. Tree and Array Multipliers
12. Variations in Multipliers

13. Basic Division Schemes

14. High-Radix Dividers
IV. Division 15. Variations in Dividers
16. Division by Convergence

17. Floating-Point Reperesentations

18. Floating-Point Operations
V. Real Arithmetic 19. Errors and Error Control
20. Precise and Certifiable Arithmetic

21. Square-Rooting Methods

22. The CORDIC Algorithms
VI. Function Evaluation 23. Variations in Function Evaluation
24. Arithmetic by Table Lookup

25. High-Throughput Arithmetic

26. Low-Power Arithmetic
VII. Implementation Topics 27. Fault-Tolerant Arithmetic
28. Past, Present, and
Reconfigurable Future
Arithmetic

Appendix: Past, Present, and Future

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 1

 About This Presentation
This presentation is intended to support the use of the textbook
Computer Arithmetic: Algorithms and Hardware Designs (Oxford
U. Press, 2nd ed., 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-532848-6). It is updated
regularly by the author as part of his teaching of the graduate
course ECE 252B, Computer Arithmetic, at the University of
California, Santa Barbara. Instructors can use these slides freely
in classroom teaching and for other educational purposes.
Unauthorized uses are strictly prohibited. © Behrooz Parhami

Edition Released Revised Revised Revised Revised

First Jan. 2000 Sep. 2001 Sep. 2003 Sep. 2005 Apr. 2007
Apr. 2008 April 2009
Second Apr. 2010 Mar. 2011 Apr. 2013 Mar. 2015

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 2

 I Background and Motivation
Number representation arguably the most important topic:
• Effects on system compatibility and ease of arithmetic
• 2’s-complement, redundant, residue number systems
• Limits of fast arithmetic
• Floating-point numbers to be covered in Chapter 17

Topics in This Part

Chapter 1 Numbers and Arithmetic
Chapter 2 Representing Signed Numbers
Chapter 3 Redundant Number Systems
Chapter 4 Residue Number Systems

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 3

 “This can’t be right . . . It goes into the red!”

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 4

 1 Numbers and Arithmetic
Chapter Goals
Define scope and provide motivation
Set the framework for the rest of the book
Review positional fixed-point numbers

Chapter Highlights
What goes on inside your calculator?
Ways of encoding numbers in k bits
Radices and digit sets: conventional, exotic
Conversion from one system to another
Dot notation: a useful visualization tool
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 5
 Numbers and Arithmetic: Topics

Topics in This Chapter

1.1 What is Computer Arithmetic?

1.2 Motivating Examples

1.3 Numbers and Their Encodings

1.4 Fixed-Radix Positional Number Systems

1.5 Number Radix Conversion

1.6 Classes of Number Representations

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 6

 1.1 What is Computer Arithmetic?
Pentium Division Bug (1994-95): Pentium’s radix-4 SRT
algorithm occasionally gave incorrect quotient
First noted in 1994 by Tom Nicely who computed sums of
reciprocals of twin primes:
1/5 + 1/7 + 1/11 + 1/13 + . . . + 1/p + 1/(p + 2) + . . .
Worst-case example of division error in Pentium:

1.333 820 44... Correct quotient

c = 4 195 835 =
3 145 727 1.333 739 06... circa 1994 Pentium
double FLP value;
accurate to only 14 bits
(worse than single!)

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 7

 Top Ten Intel Slogans for the Pentium
Humor, circa 1995 (in the wake of Pentium processor’s FDIV bug)

• 9.999 997 325 It’s a FLAW, dammit, not a bug

• 8.999 916 336 It’s close enough, we say so
• 7.999 941 461 Nearly 300 correct opcodes
• 6.999 983 153 You don’t need to know what’s inside
• 5.999 983 513 Redefining the PC –– and math as well
• 4.999 999 902 We fixed it, really
• 3.999 824 591 Division considered harmful
• 2.999 152 361 Why do you think it’s called “floating” point?
• 1.999 910 351 We’re looking for a few good flaws
• 0.999 999 999 The errata inside

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 8

 Aspects of, and Topics in, Computer Arithmetic
Hardware (our focus in this book) Software
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Design of efficient digital circuits for Numerical methods for solving
primitive and other arithmetic operations systems of linear equations,
such as +, –, , , , log, sin, and cos partial differential eq’ns, and so on
Issues: Algorithms Issues: Algorithms
Error analysis Error analysis
Speed/cost trade-offs Computational complexity
Hardware implementation Programming
Testing, verification Testing, verification
General-purpose Special-purpose
–––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––
Flexible data paths Tailored to application
Fast primitive areas such as:
operations like Digital filtering
+, –, , ,  Image processing
Benchmarking Radar tracking

Fig. 1.1 The scope of computer arithmetic.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 9

 1.2 A Motivating Example
Using a calculator with √, x2, and xy functions, compute:
u = √√ … √ 2 = 1.000 677 131 “1024th root of 2”
v = 21/1024 = 1.000 677 131
Save u and v; If you can’t save, recompute values when needed
x = (((u2)2)...)2 = 1.999 999 963
x' = u1024 = 1.999 999 973
y = (((v2)2)...)2 = 1.999 999 983
y' = v1024 = 1.999 999 994
Perhaps v and u are not really the same value
w = v – u = 1  10–11 Nonzero due to hidden digits
(u – 1)  1000 = 0.677 130 680 [Hidden ... (0) 68]
(v – 1)  1000 = 0.677 130 690 [Hidden ... (0) 69]

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 10

 Finite Precision Can Lead to Disaster
Example: Failure of Patriot Missile (1991 Feb. 25)
Source http://www.ima.umn.edu/~arnold/disasters/disasters.html
American Patriot Missile battery in Dharan, Saudi Arabia, failed to
intercept incoming Iraqi Scud missile
The Scud struck an American Army barracks, killing 28
Cause, per GAO/IMTEC-92-26 report: “software problem” (inaccurate
calculation of the time since boot)
Problem specifics:
Time in tenths of second as measured by the system’s internal clock
was multiplied by 1/10 to get the time in seconds
Internal registers were 24 bits wide
1/10 = 0.0001 1001 1001 1001 1001 100 (chopped to 24 b)
Error ≈ 0.1100 1100  2–23 ≈ 9.5  10–8
Error in 100-hr operation period
≈ 9.5  10–8  100  60  60  10 = 0.34 s
Distance traveled by Scud = (0.34 s)  (1676 m/s) ≈ 570 m
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 11
 Inadequate Range Can Lead to Disaster
Example: Explosion of Ariane Rocket (1996 June 4)
Source http://www.ima.umn.edu/~arnold/disasters/disasters.html
Unmanned Ariane 5 rocket of the European Space Agency veered
off its flight path, broke up, and exploded only 30 s after lift-off
(altitude of 3700 m)
The $500 million rocket (with cargo) was on its first voyage after a
decade of development costing $7 billion
Cause: “software error in the inertial reference system”
Problem specifics:
A 64 bit floating point number relating to the horizontal velocity of the
rocket was being converted to a 16 bit signed integer
An SRI* software exception arose during conversion because the
64-bit floating point number had a value greater than what could
be represented by a 16-bit signed integer (max 32 767)
*SRI = Système de Référence Inertielle or Inertial Reference System

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 12

 1.3 Numbers and Their Encodings
Some 4-bit number representation formats

Unsigned integer ± Signed integer

Radix
Fixed point, 3+1 point

Signed fraction ± 2's-compl fraction

Floating point e s log x Logarithmic

Exponent in Significand in Base-2

{-2, -1, 0, 1} {0, 1, 2, 3} logarithm

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 13

 Encoding Numbers in 4 Bits
-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Number
format

Unsigned integers

Signed-magnitude 

3 + 1 fixed-point, xxx.x

Signed fraction, .xxx 

2’s-compl. fraction, x.xxx

2 + 2 floating-point, s  2 e e s
e in [-2, 1], s in [0, 3]

2 + 2 logarithmic (log = xx.xx) log x

Fig. 1.2 Some of the possible ways of assigning 16 distinct codes to

represent numbers. Small triangles denote the radix point locations.
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 14
1.4 Fixed-Radix Positional Number Systems
k -1
( xk–1xk–2 . . . x1x0 . x–1x–2 . . . x–l )r = xr i
i

i -l
One can generalize to:
Arbitrary radix (not necessarily integer, positive, constant)
Arbitrary digit set, usually {–a, –a+1, . . . , b–1, b} = [–a, b]

Example 1.1. Balanced ternary number system:

Radix r = 3, digit set = [–1, 1]

Example 1.2. Negative-radix number systems:

Radix –r, r  2, digit set = [0, r – 1]
The special case with radix –2 and digit set [0, 1]
is known as the negabinary number system

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 15

 More Examples of Number Systems

Example 1.3. Digit set [–4, 5] for r = 10:

(3 –1 5)ten represents 295 = 300 – 10 + 5

Example 1.4. Digit set [–7, 7] for r = 10:

(3 –1 5)ten = (3 0 –5)ten = (1 –7 0 –5)ten

Example 1.7. Quater-imaginary number system:

radix r = 2j, digit set [0, 3]

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 16

 1.5 Number Radix Conversion
Whole part Fractional part

u = w.v
= ( xk–1xk–2 . . . x1x0 . x–1x–2 . . . x–l )r Old
= ( XK–1XK–2 . . . X1X0 . X–1X–2 . . . X–L )R New

Example: (31)eight = (25)ten 31 Oct. = 25 Dec. Halloween = Xmas

Radix conversion, using arithmetic in the old radix r

Convenient when converting from r = 10
Radix conversion, using arithmetic in the new radix R
Convenient when converting to R = 10
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 17
 Radix Conversion: Old-Radix Arithmetic
Converting whole part w: (105)ten = (?)five
Repeatedly divide by five Quotient Remainder
105 0
21 1
4 4
0
Therefore, (105)ten = (410)five

Converting fractional part v: (105.486)ten = (410.?)five

Repeatedly multiply by five Whole Part Fraction
.486
2 .430
2 .150
0 .750
3 .750
3 .750
Therefore, (105.486)ten  (410.22033)five
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 18
 Radix Conversion: New-Radix Arithmetic
Converting whole part w: (22033)five = (?)ten
((((2  5) + 2)  5 + 0)  5 + 3)  5 + 3
|-----| : : : :
10 : : : :
|-----------| : : : Horner’s
12 : : :
|---------------------| : : rule or
60 : :
|-------------------------------| : formula
303 :
|-----------------------------------------|
1518

Converting fractional part v: (410.22033)five = (105.?)ten

(0.22033)five  55 = (22033)five = (1518)ten
1518 / 55 = 1518 / 3125 = 0.48576
Therefore, (410.22033)five = (105.48576)ten
Horner’s rule is also applicable: Proceed from right to left
and use division instead of multiplication
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 19
 Horner’s Rule for Fractions

Converting fractional part v: (0.22033)five = (?)ten

(((((3 / 5) + 3) / 5 + 0) / 5 + 2) / 5 + 2) / 5
|-----| : : : :
0.6 : : : :
|-----------| : : :
3.6 : : : Horner’s
|---------------------| : : rule or
0.72 : :
|-------------------------------| : formula
2.144 :
|-----------------------------------------|
2.4288
|-----------------------------------------------|
0.48576

Fig. 1.3 Horner’s rule used to convert (0.220 33)five to decimal.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 20

 1.6 Classes of Number Representations
Integers (fixed-point), unsigned: Chapter 1
Integers (fixed-point), signed
Signed-magnitude, biased, complement: Chapter 2
Signed-digit, including carry/borrow-save: Chapter 3
(but the key point of Chapter 3 is
using redundancy for faster arithmetic, For the most part you need:
not how to represent signed values) - 2’s complement numbers
Residue number system: Chapter 4 - Carry-save representation
(again, the key to Chapter 4 is - IEEE floating-point format
use of parallelism for faster arithmetic,
not how to represent signed values) However, knowing the rest of
the material (including RNS)
Real numbers, floating-point: Chapter 17 provides you with more
Part V deals with real arithmetic options when designing
custom and special-purpose
Real numbers, exact: Chapter 20 hardware systems
Continued-fraction, slash, . . .
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 21
 Dot Notation: A Useful Visualization Tool

+ 

(a) Addition

(b) Multiplication

Fig. 1.4 Dot notation to depict number representation formats and

arithmetic algorithms.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 22

 2 Representing Signed Numbers

Chapter Goals
Learn different encodings of the sign info
Discuss implications for arithmetic design

Chapter Highlights
Using sign bit, biasing, complementation
Properties of 2’s-complement numbers
Signed vs unsigned arithmetic
Signed numbers, positions, or digits
Extended dot notation: posibits and negabits

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 23

 Representing Signed Numbers: Topics

Topics in This Chapter

2.1 Signed-Magnitude Representation

2.2 Biased Representations

2.3 Complement Representations

2.4 2’s- and 1’s-Complement Numbers

2.5 Direct and Indirect Signed Arithmetic

2.6 Using Signed Positions or Signed Digits

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 24

 2.1 Signed-Magnitude Representation
0000
1111 0001
0 Bit pattern
1110 -7 +1 0010
(representation)
-6 +2
1101 Signed values 0011
-5 +3
(signed magnitude)
Decrement 1100 -4 _ + +4 0100 Increment

-3 +5
1011 0101
-
+2 +6
1010 - -1 +7 0110
-0
1001 0111
1000
Fig. 2.1 A 4-bit signed-magnitude number representation
system for integers.
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 25
 Signed-Magnitude Adder
Sign x Sign y x y

Selective
Selective
Comp
Complxx Complement
complement

___
Add/Sub
Add/Sub
Control
c out Adder cin

Sign
Selective
Selective
Comp
Compl s s Complement
complement

Sign s s
Fig. 2.2 Adding signed-magnitude numbers using precomplementation
and postcomplementation.
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 26
 2.2 Biased Representations
0000
1111 0001
-8 Bit pattern
1110 +7 -7 0010
(representation)
+6 -6
1101 Signed values 0011
+5 -5

Increment 1100 +4
(biased by 8)
_ -4 0100 Increment

1011
+3 + -3
0101
+2 -2
1010 +1 -1 0110
0
1001 0111
1000

Fig. 2.3 A 4-bit biased integer number representation system

with a bias of 8.
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 27
 Arithmetic with Biased Numbers

Addition/subtraction of biased numbers

x + y + bias = (x + bias) + (y + bias) – bias
x – y + bias = (x + bias) – (y + bias) + bias

A power-of-2 (or 2a – 1) bias simplifies addition/subtraction

Comparison of biased numbers:

Compare like ordinary unsigned numbers
find true difference by ordinary subtraction

We seldom perform arbitrary arithmetic on biased numbers

Main application: Exponent field of floating-point numbers

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 28

 2.3 Complement Representations
0
M -1 1
M -2 +0 Unsigned
-1 +1 2
representations
-2 +2
3

Decrement
_ Signed values +3

+4 4 Increment
+
-N
+P
M-N
P
Fig. 2.4 Complement representation of signed integers.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 29

 Arithmetic with Complement Representations
Table 2.1 Addition in a complement number system with
complementation constant M and range [–N, +P]
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Desired Computation to be Correct result Overflow
operation performed mod M with no overflow condition
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(+x) + (+y) x+y x+y x+y>P

(+x) + (–y) x + (M – y) x – y if y  x N/A

M – (y – x) if y > x

(–x) + (+y) (M – x) + y y – x if x  y N/A

M – (x – y) if x > y

(–x) + (–y) (M – x) + (M – y) M – (x + y) x+y>N

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 30

 Example and Two Special Cases
Example -- complement system for fixed-point numbers:
Complementation constant M = 12.000
Fixed-point number range [–6.000, +5.999]
Represent –3.258 as 12.000 – 3.258 = 8.742
Auxiliary operations for complement representations
complementation or change of sign (computing M – x)
computations of residues mod M
Thus, M must be selected to simplify these operations
Two choices allow just this for fixed-point radix-r arithmetic
with k whole digits and l fractional digits
Radix complement M = rk
Digit complement M = rk – ulp (aka diminished radix compl)
ulp (unit in least position) stands for r-l
Allows us to forget about l, even for nonintegers
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 31
 2.4 2’s- and 1’s-Complement Numbers
0000
1111 0001
+0 Unsigned
1110 -1 +1 0010
representations
-2 +2
1101 Signed values 0011 Two’s complement = radix
-3 +3
(2’s complement) complement system for r = 2

1100 -4 _ + +4 0100
M = 2k
2k – x = [(2k – ulp) – x] + ulp
= xcompl + ulp
-5 +5
1011 0101
Range of representable
-6 +6
numbers in with k whole bits:
1010 -7 +7 0110
-8
from –2k–1 to 2k–1 – ulp
1001 0111
1000
Fig. 2.5 A 4-bit 2’s-complement number representation system for integers.
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 32
 1’s-Complement Number Representation
0000
1111 0001
+0 Unsigned
1110 -0 +1 0010
representations
-1 +2
1101 Signed values 0011 One’s complement = digit
-2 +3
(1’s complement) complement (diminished radix

1100 -3 _ + +4 0100
complement) system for r = 2
M = 2k – ulp

-4 +5 (2k – ulp) – x = xcompl

1011 0101
-5 +6 Range of representable
1010 -6 +7 0110 numbers in with k whole bits:
-7
from –2k–1 + ulp to 2k–1 – ulp
1001 0111
1000
Fig. 2.6 A 4-bit 1’s-complement number representation system for integers.
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 33
 Some Details for 2’s- and 1’s Complement
Range/precision extension for 2’s-complement numbers
. . . xk–1 xk–1 xk–1 xk–1 xk–2 . . . x1 x0 . x–1 x–2 . . . x–l 0 0 0 . . .
 Sign extension  Sign LSD  Extension 
bit

Range/precision extension for 1’s-complement numbers

. . . xk–1 xk–1 xk–1 xk–1 xk–2 . . . x1 x0 . x–1 x–2 . . . x–l xk–1 xk–1 xk–1 . . .
 Sign extension  Sign LSD  Extension 
bit

Mod-2k operation needed in 2’s-complement arithmetic is trivial:

Simply drop the carry-out (subtract 2k if result is 2k or greater)

Mod-(2k – ulp) operation needed in 1’s-complement arithmetic is done

via end-around carry
(x + y) – (2k – ulp) = (x – y – 2k) + ulp Connect cout to cin

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 34

 Which Complement System Is Better?
Table 2.2 Comparing radix- and digit-complement
number representation systems
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Feature/Property Radix complement Digit complement
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Symmetry (P = N?) Possible for odd r Possible for even r
(radices of practical
interest are even)

Unique zero? Yes No, there are two 0s

Complementation Complement all digits Complement all digits

and add ulp

Mod-M addition Drop the carry-out End-around carry

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 35

 Why 2’s-Complement Is the Universal Choice
x y
Controlled
complementation
0 1 Can replace
Mux this mux with
_
k XOR gates
y or y
___
Adder add/sub
cout cin
0 for addition,
s=x y 1 for subtraction
Fig. 2.7 Adder/subtractor architecture for 2’s-complement numbers.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 36

 Signed-Magnitude vs 2’s-Complement
Sign x Sign y x y

Signed-magnitude
Selective
Selective
Comp
Complxx Complement
complement adder/subtractor is
___
significantly more
Add/Sub
Add/Sub complex than a
Control
c out Adder cin
simple adder
Sign
Selective
Selective
Comp
Compl s s Complement
complement x y
Controlled
Sign s
Fig. 2.2 s complementation
0 1
Mux
_
2’s-complement y or y
adder/subtractor ___
needs very little Adder add/sub
cout cin
hardware other than 0 for addition,

a simple adder Fig. 2.7 s=x y 1 for subtraction

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 37

 2.5 Direct and Indirect Signed Arithmetic
x y
x y

Sign removal

Sign Unsigned
f
logic operation

Adjustment

f(x, y)
f(x, y)
Fig. 2.8 Direct versus indirect operation on signed numbers.

Direct signed arithmetic is usually faster (not always)

Indirect signed arithmetic can be simpler (not always); allows sharing
of signed/unsigned hardware when both operation types are needed
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 38
 2.6 Using Signed Positions or Signed Digits
A key property of 2’s-complement numbers that facilitates
direct signed arithmetic:
x = (1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0)two’s-compl
–27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
–128 + 32 + 4 + 2 = –90

Check:
x = (1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0)two’s-compl
–x = (0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0)two
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
64 + 16 + 8 + 2 = 90
Fig. 2.9 Interpreting a 2’s-complement number as having a
negatively weighted most-significant digit.
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 39
 Associating a Sign with Each Digit
Signed-digit representation: Digit set [-a, b] instead of [0, r – 1]
Example: Radix-4 representation with digit set [-1, 2] rather than [0, 3]
3 1 2 0 2 3 Original digits in [0, 3]
–1 1 2 0 2 –1 Rewritten digits in [–1, 2]
1 0 0 0 0 1 Transfer digits in [0, 1]
1 –1 1 2 0 3 –1 Sum digits in [–1, 3]
1 –1 1 2 0 –1 –1 Rewritten digits in [–1, 2]
0 0 0 0 1 0 Transfer digits in [0, 1]
1 –1 1 2 1 –1 –1 Sum digits in [–1, 3]
Fig. 2.10 Converting a standard radix-4 integer to a radix-4
integer with the nonstandard digit set [–1, 2].
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 40
 Redundant Signed-Digit Representations
Signed-digit representation: Digit set [-a, b], with r = a + b + 1 – r > 0
Example: Radix-4 representation with digit set [-2, 2]

3 1 2 0 2 3 Original digits in [0, 3]

–1 1 –2 0 –2 1 Interim digits in [–2, 1]
1 0 1 0 1 1 Transfer digits in [0, 1]
1 –1 2 –2 1 –1 –1 Sum digits in [–2, 2]
Fig. 2.11 Converting a standard radix-4 integer to a radix-4
integer with the nonstandard digit set [–2, 2].

Here, the transfer does not propagate, so conversion is “carry-free”

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 41

 Extended Dot Notation: Posibits and Negabits

Posibit, or simply bit: positively weighted

Negabit: negatively weighted

Unsigned positive-radix number

2’s-complement number

Negative-radix number

Fig. 2.12 Extended dot notation depicting various number

representation formats.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 42

 Extended Dot Notation in Use

+ 

(a) Addition

(b) Multiplication

Fig. 2.13 Example arithmetic algorithms represented in extended

dot notation.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 43

 3 Redundant Number Systems

Chapter Goals
Explore the advantages and drawbacks
of using more than r digit values in radix r

Chapter Highlights
Redundancy eliminates long carry chains
Redundancy takes many forms: trade-offs
Redundant/nonredundant conversions
Redundancy used for end values too?
Extended dot notation with redundancy

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 44

 Redundant Number Systems: Topics

Topics in This Chapter

3.1 Coping with the Carry Problem

3.2 Redundancy in Computer Arithmetic

3.3 Digit Sets and Digit-Set Conversions

3.4 Generalized Signed-Digit Numbers

3.5 Carry-Free Addition Algorithms

3.6 Conversions and Support Functions

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 45

 3.1 Coping with the Carry Problem
Ways of dealing with the carry propagation problem:
1. Limit propagation to within a small number of bits (Chapters 3-4)
2. Detect end of propagation; don’t wait for worst case (Chapter 5)
3. Speed up propagation via lookahead etc. (Chapters 6-7)
4. Ideal: Eliminate carry propagation altogether! (Chapter 3)

5 7 8 2 4 9
+ 6 2 9 3 8 9 Operand digits in [0, 9]
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
11 9 17 5 12 18 Position sums in [0, 18]

But how can we extend this beyond a single addition?

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 46

 Addition of Redundant Numbers
Position sum decomposition [0, 36] = 10  [0, 2] + [0, 16]
Absorption of transfer digit [0, 16] + [0, 2] = [0, 18]

11 9 17 10 12 18
Operand digits in [0, 18]
+ 6 12 9 10 8 18
17 21 26 20 20 36 Position sums in [0, 36]
7 11 16 0 10 16 Interim sums in [0, 16]

1 1 1 2 1 2 Transfer digits in [0, 2]

1 8 12 18 1 12 16 Sum digits in [0, 18]

Fig. 3.1 Adding radix-10 numbers with digit set [0, 18].

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 47

 Meaning of Carry-Free Addition

Interim sum Operand digits Transfer digit

at position i at position i into position i

xi+ 1,y i+ 1 x i, y i xi–1 ,y i–1 xi+ 1,y i+ 1 x i, y i xi–1 ,y i–1 xi+ 1,y i+ 1 x i, y i xi–1 ,y i–1

ti
s i+ 1 si s i–1
s i+ 1 si s i–1
(Impos sible for p ositional
s ystem with fixed d igit set)
s i+ 1 si s i–1
(a) Ideal sin gle-stage carry-free. (b) Two -stage carry-free. (c) Sin gle-stage with lo okahead.

Fig. 3.2 Ideal and practical carry-free addition schemes.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 48

 Redundancy Index
So, redundancy helps us achieve carry-free addition -a b
But how much redundancy is actually needed? Is [0, 11] enough for r = 10?

Redundancy index r = a + b + 1 – r For example, 0 + 11 + 1 – 10 = 2

11 10 7 11 3 8
Operand digits in [0, 11]
+ 7 2 9 10 9 8
18 12 16 21 12 16 Position sums in [0, 22]
8 2 6 1 2 6 Interim sums in [0, 9]

1 1 1 2 1 1 Transfer digits in [0, 2]

1 9 3 8 2 3 6 Sum digits in [0, 11]
Fig. 3.3 Adding radix-10 numbers with digit set [0, 11].
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 49
 3.2 Redundancy in Computer Arithmetic

Binary
Binary Binary-to- One or more Redundant Output
Inputs
redundant arithmetic -to-binary
converter operations converter

Overhead Overhead
(often zero) (always nonzero)

The more the amount of computation performed between the

initial forward conversion and final reverse conversion (reconversion),
the greater the benefits of redundant representation.

Same block diagram applies to residue number systems of Chapter 4.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 50

 Binary Carry-Save or Stored-Carry Representation
0 0 1 0 0 1 First binary number
Oldest example of
redundancy in + 0 1 1 1 1 0 Add second binary number
computer arithmetic 0 1 2 1 1 1 Position sums in [0, 2]
is the stored-carry + 0 1 1 1 0 1 Add third binary number
representation
0 2 3 2 1 2 Position sums in [0, 3]
(carry-save addition)
0 0 1 0 1 0 Interim sums in [0, 1]
0 1 1 1 0 1 Transfer digits in [0, 1]
1 1 2 0 2 0 Position sums in [0, 2]
+ 0 0 1 0 1 1 Add fourth binary number
1 1 3 0 3 1 Position sums in [0, 3]
Fig. 3.4 Addition of
four binary numbers, 1 1 1 0 1 1 Interim sums in [0, 1]

with the sum obtained 0 0 1 0 1 0 Transfer digits in [0, 1]

in stored-carry form. 1 2 1 1 1 1 Sum digits in [0, 2]

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 51

 Hardware for Carry-Save Addition

Two-bit encoding for binary

Digit in [0, 2] Binary digit
stored-carry digits used in
this implementation:
x y
Binary 0 represented as 0 0
cout Full c in
1 represented as 0 1
Adder
To From or as 1 0
(Stage i)
Stage Stage 2 represented as 1 1
s i–1
i+1

Digit in [0, 2] Because in carry-save addition,

three binary numbers are
Fig. 3.5 Using an array of reduced to two binary numbers,
independent binary full adders this process is sometimes
to perform carry-save addition. referred to as 3-2 compression

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 52

 Carry-Save Addition in Dot Notation
This bit Carry-save Carry-save Two
being 1 input addition carry-save
represents inputs
overflow Binary input
(ignore it)
Carry-save Carry-save
0
0 output addition
4-to-2
3-to-2 reduction
reduction 0

Fig. 9.3 From textaddition.

a. Carry-save on computer architecture (Parhami,
b. Adding Oxford/2005)
two carry-save numbers.

We sometimes find it convenient to use an extended dot notation,

with heavy dots (●) for posibits and hollow dots (○) for negabits
Eight-bit, 2’s-complement number ○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Negative-radix number ○ ● ○ ● ○ ● ○ ●
BSD number with n, p encoding ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
of the digit set [-1, 1] ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 53
 Example for the Use of Extended Dot Notation
2’s-complement multiplicand ○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
2’s-complement multiplier ○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Multiplication of ○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
2’s-complement ○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
numbers ○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
○● ● ● ● ● ● ●
○●● ● ● ● ● ●
●○○○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○● ●●● ●●● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Option 1: Option 2: Baugh-Wooley method
sign extension
-x -x 1- x
-x x x x x -y -1 1- y
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 54
 3.3 Digit Sets and Digit-Set Conversions
Example 3.1: Convert from digit set [0, 18] to [0, 9] in radix 10

11 9 17 10 12 18 18 = 10 (carry 1) + 8
11 9 17 10 13 8 13 = 10 (carry 1) + 3
11 9 17 11 3 8 11 = 10 (carry 1) + 1
11 9 18 1 3 8 18 = 10 (carry 1) + 8
11 10 8 1 3 8 10 = 10 (carry 1) + 0
12 0 8 1 3 8 12 = 10 (carry 1) + 2
1 2 0 8 1 3 8 Answer;
all digits in [0, 9]

Note: Conversion from redundant to nonredundant representation

always involves carry propagation

Thus, the process is sequential and slow

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 55

 Conversion from Carry-Save to Binary
Example 3.2: Convert from digit set [0, 2] to [0, 1] in radix 2

1 1 2 0 2 0 2 = 2 (carry 1) + 0
1 1 2 1 0 0 2 = 2 (carry 1) + 0
1 2 0 1 0 0 2 = 2 (carry 1) + 0
2 0 0 1 0 0 2 = 2 (carry 1) + 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Answer;
all digits in [0, 1]

Another way: Decompose the carry-save number

into two numbers and add them:

1 1 1 0 1 0 1st number: sum bits

+ 0 0 1 0 1 0 2nd number: carry bits
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Sum
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 56
 Conversion Between Redundant Digit Sets

Example 3.3: Convert from digit set [0, 18] to [-6, 5] in radix 10 (same as
Example 3.1, but with the target digit set signed and redundant)

11 9 17 10 12 18 18 = 20 (carry 2) – 2
11 9 17 10 14 -2 14 = 10 (carry 1) + 4
11 9 17 11 4 -2 11 = 10 (carry 1) + 1
11 9 18 1 4 -2 18 = 20 (carry 2) – 2
11 11 -2 1 4 -2 11 = 10 (carry 1) + 1
12 1 -2 1 4 -2 12 = 10 (carry 1) + 2
1 2 1 -2 1 4 -2 Answer;
all digits in [-6, 5]

On line 2, we could have written 14 = 20 (carry 2) – 6; this would have

led to a different, but equivalent, representation

In general, several representations may exist for a redundant digit set

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 57
 Carry-Free Conversion to a Redundant Digit Set

Example 3.4: Convert from digit set [0, 2] to [-1, 1] in radix 2 (same as
Example 3.2, but with the target digit set signed and redundant)

Carry-free conversion:

1 1 2 0 2 0 Carry-save number
–1 –1 0 0 0 0 Interim digits in [–1, 0]
1 1 1 0 1 0 Transfer digits in [0, 1]
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Answer;
all digits in [–1, 1]

We rewrite 2 as 2 (carry 1) + 0, and 1 as 2 (carry 1) – 1

A carry of 1 is always absorbed by the interim digit that is in {-1, 0}

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 58

 3.4 Generalized Signed-Digit Numbers
Radix-r Positional
r r Radix r
Non-redundant Generalized Digit set [–a, b]
signed-digit (GSD)
Requirement
a  a  r r
a+b+1r
Non-minimal Redundancy index
Conventional Non-redundant Minimal
GSD
signed-digit GSD
a b
r=a+b+1–r
a b a b a b
(even r)
Asymmetr ic Symmetric non- Asymmetr ic non-
Symmetric minimal GSD
minimal GSD minimal GSD minimal GSD

a  a  r a 
a  Fig. 3.6
r=2 a  b r
(r ° 2) A taxonomy of
BSD or Stored- Non-binary Ordinary Unsigned-digit SCB
redundant and
BSB carry (SC) SB signed-digit redundant (UDR) non-redundant
a 
r/2 + 1 a  r – 1 r=2 positional
r=2
number
Minimally Maximally
BSC redundant OSD redundant OSD BSCB systems.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 59

 Encodings for Signed Digits
xi 1 –1 0 –1 0 BSD representation of +6
s, v 01 11 00 11 00 Sign and value encoding
2’s-compl 01 11 00 11 00 2-bit 2’s-complement
n, p 01 10 00 10 00 Negative & positive flags
n, z, p 001 100 010 100 010 1-out-of-3 encoding

Fig. 3.7 Four encodings for the BSD digit set [–1, 1].
Posibit {0, 1}
(n, p) encoding
Two of the Negabit {–1, 0}
encodings
above Doublebit {0, 2} 2’s-compl. encoding
can be shown Negadoublebit {–2, 0}
in extended 2’s-compl. encoding
Unibit {–1, 1}
dot notation
(a) Extended dot notation (b) Encodings for a BSD number

Fig. 3.8 Extended dot notation and its use in visualizing

some BSD encodings.
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 60
 Hybrid Signed-Digit Numbers
BSD B B BSD B B BSD B B Type

1 0 1 –1 0 1 –1 0 1 xi
Radix-8
+ 0 1 1 –1 1 0 0 1 0 yi GSD
with
1 1 2 –2 1 1 –1 1 1 pi
digit set
–1 0 –1 wi [-4,7]

1 –1 0 t i+1
1 –1 1 1 0 1 1 –1 1 1 si
Fig. 3.9 Example of addition for hybrid signed-digit numbers.

The hybrid-redundant representation above in extended dot notation:

n, p -encoded ○ ● ● ○ ● ● ○ ● ● Nonredundant
binary signed digit ● ● ● binary positions
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 61
 Hybrid Redundancy in Extended Dot Notation

Radix-8 digit set [–4, 7]

Radix-8 digit set [–4, 4]

Fig. 3.10 Two hybrid-redundant representations in extended

dot notation.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 62

 3.5 Carry-Free Addition Algorithms
Carry-free addition of GSD numbers xi+1 ,y i+1 x i, y i xi–1 ,y i–1

Compute the position sums pi = xi + yi

Divide pi into a transfer ti+1 and interim sum wi = pi – rti+1 wi ti

Add incoming transfers to get the sum digits si = wi + ti

s i+1 si s i–1

If the transfer digits ti are in [–l, m], we must have:

These
–a + l  pi – rti+1  b–m constraints
interim sum lead to:

Smallest interim sum Largest interim sum l  a / (r – 1)

if a transfer of –l if a transfer of m
is to be absorbable is to be absorbable m  b / (r – 1)

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 63

 Is Carry-Free Addition Always Applicable?
No: It requires one of the following two conditions
a. r > 2, r  3
b. r > 2, r = 2, a  1, b  1 e.g., not [-1, 10] in radix 10

In other words, it is inapplicable for

r=2 Perhaps most useful case
r=1 e.g., carry-save
r = 2 with a = 1 or b = 1 e.g., carry/borrow-save

BSD fails on at least two criteria!

Fortunately, in the latter cases, a limited-carry

addition algorithm is always applicable

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 64

 Limited-Carry Addition
Example: BSD addition 1 1 1 -1 -1
1
0 1 0 -1
Estimate, or
xi+1 ,yearly
i+1 xwarning ,
i, y i xi–1 ,y i–1 xi+1 ,y i+1 x i y i xi–1 ,y i–1 xi+1 ,y i+1 x i, y i xi–1 ,y i–1

ei t'i t (1)
i
t (2)
i
ti ti

s i+1 si s i–1
s i+1 si s i–1 s i+1 si s i–1
(a)
(a)Three-stage carryestimate
Three-stage carry estimate. (b)
(b) Th ree-stagerepeated
Three-stage repeated-carry.
carry (c) Tw
(c) Two -stage
o-stage parallel-carries.
parallel carries

Fig. 3.12 Some implementations for limited-carry addition.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 65
 Limited-Carry BSD Addition
1 –1 0 –1 0 x i in [–1, 1]
+ 0 –1 –1 0 1 y i in [–1, 1]
1 –2 –1 –1 1 p i in [–2, 2]
high low low low high high e i in {low: [–1, 0], high: [0, 1]}
1 0 1 –1 –1 wi in [–1, 1]
0 –1 –1 0 1 t i+1 in [–1, 1]
0 0 –1 1 0 –1 s i in [–1, 1]
Fig. 3.13 Limited-carry addition of radix-2 numbers with digit set [–1, 1]
using carry estimates. A position sum –1 is kept intact when the incoming
transfer is in [0, 1], whereas it is rewritten as 1 with a carry of –1 for
incoming transfer in [–1, 0]. This guarantees that ti  wi and thus –1  si  1.
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 66
 3.6 Conversions and Support Functions
Example 3.10: Conversion from/to BSD to/from standard binary

1 -1 0 -1 0 BSD representation of +6
1 0 0 0 0 Positive part
0 1 0 1 0 Negative part
0 0 1 1 0 Difference =
Conversion result

The negative and positive parts above are particularly easy to obtain
if the BSD number has the n, p encoding

Conversion from redundant to nonredundant representation

always requires full carry propagation

Conversion from nonredundant to redundant is often trivial

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 67

 Other Arithmetic Support Functions
Zero test: Zero has a unique code under some conditions
Sign test: Needs carry propagation
Overflow: May be real or apparent (result may be representable)

xk–1 xk–2 ... x1 x0 k-digit GSD operands

+ yk–1 yk–2 ... y1 y0
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––
pk–1 pk–2 ... p1 p0 Position sums
| | | |
wk–1 wk–2 ... w1 w0 Interim sum digits
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
tk tk–1 ... t2 t1 Transfer digits
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––
sk–1 sk–2 ... s1 s0 k-digit apparent sum
Overflow and its detection in GSD arithmetic.
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 68
 4 Residue Number Systems
Chapter Goals
Study a way of encoding large numbers
as a collection of smaller numbers
to simplify and speed up some operations

Chapter Highlights
Moduli, range, arithmetic operations
Many sets of moduli possible: tradeoffs
Conversions between RNS and binary
The Chinese remainder theorem
Why are RNS applications limited?
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 69
 Residue Number Systems: Topics

Topics in This Chapter

4.1 RNS Representation and Arithmetic

4.2 Choosing the RNS Moduli

4.3 Encoding and Decoding of Numbers

4.4 Difficult RNS Arithmetic Operations

4.5 Redundant RNS Representations

4.6 Limits of Fast Arithmetic in RNS

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 70

4.1 RNS Representations and Arithmetic
Puzzle, due to the Chinese scholar Sun Tzu,1500+ years ago:
What number has the remainders of 2, 3, and 2
when divided by 7, 5, and 3, respectively?

Residues (akin to digits in positional systems) uniquely identify

the number, hence they constitute a representation

Pairwise relatively prime moduli: mk–1 > . . . > m1 > m0

The residue xi of x wrt the ith modulus mi (similar to a digit):

xi = x mod mi = xmi

RNS representation contains a list of k residues or digits:

x = (2 | 3 | 2)RNS(7|5|3)

Default RNS for this chapter: RNS(8 | 7 | 5 | 3)

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 71

 RNS Dynamic Range
Product M of the k pairwise relatively prime moduli is the dynamic range
M = mk–1  . . .  m1  m0
We can take the
For RNS(8 | 7 | 5 | 3), M = 8  7  5  3 = 840 range of RNS(8|7|5|3)
to be [-420, 419] or
Negative numbers: Complement relative to M any other set of 840
–xmi = M – xmi consecutive integers
21 = (5 | 0 | 1 | 0)RNS
–21 = (8 – 5 | 0 | 5 – 1 | 0)RNS = (3 | 0 | 4 | 0)RNS
Here are some example numbers in our default RNS(8 | 7 | 5 | 3):
(0 | 0 | 0 | 0)RNS Represents 0 or 840 or . . .
(1 | 1 | 1 | 1)RNS Represents 1 or 841 or . . .
(2 | 2 | 2 | 2)RNS Represents 2 or 842 or . . .
(0 | 1 | 3 | 2)RNS Represents 8 or 848 or . . .
(5 | 0 | 1 | 0)RNS Represents 21 or 861 or . . .
(0 | 1 | 4 | 1)RNS Represents 64 or 904 or . . .
(2 | 0 | 0 | 2)RNS Represents –70 or 770 or . . .
(7 | 6 | 4 | 2)RNS Represents –1 or 839 or . . .
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 72
 RNS as Weighted Representation

For RNS(8 | 7 | 5 | 3), the weights of the 4 positions are:

105 120 336 280
Example: (1 | 2 | 4 | 0)RNS represents the number
1051 + 1202 + 3364 + 2800840 = 1689840 = 9

For RNS(7 | 5 | 3), the weights of the 3 positions are:

15 21 70
Example -- Chinese puzzle: (2 | 3 | 2)RNS(7|5|3) represents the number
15  2 + 21  3 + 70  2105 = 233105 = 23

We will see later how the weights can be determined for a given RNS

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 73

 RNS Encoding and Arithmetic Operations
Operand 1 Operand 2

mod 8 mod 7 mod 5 mod 3

Fig. 4.1 Binary-coded
format for RNS(8 | 7 | 5 | 3).
Mod-8 Mod-7 Mod-5 Mod-3
Unit Unit Unit Unit
Fig. 4.2 The structure of an adder,
3 3 3 2
subtractor, or multiplier for RNS(8|7|5|3).
Result

Arithmetic in RNS(8 | 7 | 5 | 3) mod 8 mod 7 mod 5 mod 3

(5 | 5 | 0 | 2)RNS Represents x = +5
(7 | 6 | 4 | 2)RNS Represents y = –1
(4 | 4 | 4 | 1)RNS x + y : 5 + 78 = 4, 5 + 67 = 4, etc.
(6 | 6 | 1 | 0)RNS x – y : 5 – 78 = 6, 5 – 67 = 6, etc.
(alternatively, find –y and add to x)
(3 | 2 | 0 | 1)RNS x  y : 5  78 = 3, 5  67 = 2, etc.
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 74
 4.2 Choosing the RNS Moduli
Target range for our RNS: Decimal values [0, 100 000]

Strategy 1: To minimize the largest modulus, and thus ensure

high-speed arithmetic, pick prime numbers in sequence

Pick m0 = 2, m1 = 3, m2 = 5, etc. After adding m5 = 13:

RNS(13 | 11 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 2) M = 30 030 Inadequate

RNS(17 | 13 | 11 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 2) M = 510 510 Too large

RNS(17 | 13 | 11 | 7 | 3 | 2) M = 102 102 Just right!

5 + 4 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 19 bits

Fine tuning: Combine pairs of moduli 2 & 13 (26) and 3 & 7 (21)
RNS(26 | 21 | 17 | 11) M = 102 102

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 75

 An Improved Strategy
Target range for our RNS: Decimal values [0, 100 000]

Strategy 2: Improve strategy 1 by including powers of smaller

primes before proceeding to the next larger prime

RNS(22 | 3) M = 12
RNS(32 | 23 | 7 | 5) M = 2520
RNS(11 | 32 | 23 | 7 | 5) M = 27 720
RNS(13 | 11 | 32 | 23 | 7 | 5) M = 360 360
(remove one 3, combine 3 & 5)
RNS(15 | 13 | 11 | 23 | 7) M = 120 120
4 + 4 + 4 + 3 + 3 = 18 bits

Fine tuning: Maximize the size of the even modulus within the 4-bit limit
RNS(24 | 13 | 11 | 32 | 7 | 5) M = 720 720 Too large
We can now remove 5 or 7; not an improvement in this example

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 76

 Low-Cost RNS Moduli
Target range for our RNS: Decimal values [0, 100 000]

Strategy 3: To simplify the modular reduction (mod mi) operations,

choose only moduli of the forms 2a or 2a – 1, aka “low-cost moduli”
RNS(2ak–1 | 2ak–2 – 1 | . . . | 2a1 – 1 | 2a0 – 1)
We can have only one even modulus
2ai – 1 and 2aj – 1 are relatively prime iff ai and aj are relatively prime
RNS(23 | 23–1 | 22–1) basis: 3, 2 M = 168
RNS(24 | 24–1 | 23–1) basis: 4, 3 M = 1680
RNS(25 | 25–1 | 23–1 | 22–1) basis: 5, 3, 2 M = 20 832
RNS(25 | 25–1 | 24–1 | 23–1) basis: 5, 4, 3 M = 104 160
Comparison
RNS(15 | 13 | 11 | 23 | 7) 18 bits M = 120 120
RNS(25 | 25–1 | 24–1 | 23–1) 17 bits M = 104 160
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 77
 Low- and Moderate-Cost RNS Moduli
Target range for our RNS: Decimal values [0, 100 000]

Strategy 4: To simplify the modular reduction (mod mi) operations,

choose moduli of the forms 2a, 2a – 1, or 2a + 1
RNS(2ak–1 | 2ak–2  1 | . . . | 2a1  1 | 2a0  1)
We can have only one even modulus
2ai – 1 and 2aj + 1 are relatively prime Neither 5 nor 3 is acceptable

RNS(25 | 24–1 | 24+1 | 23–1) M = 57 120

RNS(25 | 24+1 | 23+1 | 23–1 | 22–1) M = 102 816

The modulus 2a + 1 is not as convenient as 2a – 1

(needs an extra bit for residue, and modular operations are not as simple)

Diminished-1 representation of values in [0, 2a] is a way to simplify things

Represent 0 by a special flag bit and nonzero values by coding one less

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 78

 Example RNS with Special Moduli

For RNS(17 | 16 | 15), the weights of the 3 positions are:

2160 3825 2176
Example: (x2, x1, x0) = (2 | 3 | 4)RNS represents the number
21602 + 38253 + 217644080 = 24,4994080 = 19

2160 = 24  (24 – 1)  (23 + 1) = 211 + 27 – 24

3825 = (28 – 1)  (24 – 1) = 212 – 28 – 24 + 1

2176 = 27  (24 + 1) = 211 + 27

4080 = 212 – 24 ; thus, to subtract 4080, ignore bit 12 and add 24

Reverse converter: Multioperand adder, with shifted xis as inputs

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 79

 4.3 Encoding and Decoding of Numbers

Binary
Binary Binary-to- One or more RNS-to- Output
Inputs
RNS arithmetic binary
converter Operations converter

Encoding or Example: Decoding or

forward reverse
Digital filter
conversion conversion

The more the amount of computation performed between the

initial forward conversion and final reverse conversion (reconversion),
the greater the benefits of RNS representation.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 80

 Conversion from Binary/Decimal to RNS
Example 4.1: Represent the Table 4.1 Residues of
number y = (1010 0100)two = the first 10 powers of 2
(164)ten in RNS(8 | 7 | 5 | 3) –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
i 2i 2i7 2i5 2i3
The mod-8 residue is easy to find –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
0 1 1 1 1
x3 = y8 = (100)two = 4 1 2 2 2 2
2 4 4 4 1
We have y = 27+25+22; thus 3 8 1 3 2
x2 = y7 = 2 + 4 + 47 = 3 4 16 2 1 1
5 32 4 2 2
x1 = y5 = 3 + 2 + 45 = 4 6 64 1 4 1
x0 = y3 = 2 + 2 + 13 = 2 7 128 2 3 2
8 256 4 1 1
9 512 1 2 2
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 81
 Conversion from RNS to Mixed-Radix Form
MRS(mk–1 | . . . | m2 | m1 | m0) is a k-digit positional system with weights
mk–2...m2m1m0 . . . m2m1m0 m1m0 m0 1
and digit sets
[0, mk–1–1] . . . [0,m3–1] [0,m2–1] [0,m1–1] [0,m0–1]
Example: (0 | 3 | 1 | 0)MRS(8|7|5|3) = 0105 + 315 + 13 + 01 = 48
RNS-to-MRS conversion problem:
y = (xk–1 | . . . | x2 | x1 | x0)RNS = (zk–1 | . . . | z2 | z1 | z0)MRS
MRS representation allows magnitude comparison and sign detection
Example: 48 versus 45
(0 | 6 | 3 | 0)RNS vs (5 | 3 | 0 | 0)RNS
(000 | 110 | 011 | 00)RNS vs (101 | 011 | 000 | 00)RNS
Equivalent mixed-radix representations
(0 | 3 | 1 | 0)MRS vs (0 | 3 | 0 | 0)MRS
(000 | 011 | 001 | 00)MRS vs (000 | 011 | 000 | 00)MRS
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 82
 Conversion from RNS to Binary/Decimal
Theorem 4.1 (The Chinese remainder theorem)
x = (xk–1 | . . . | x2 | x1 | x0)RNS =  i Mi ai ximi M
where Mi = M/mi and ai = Mi –1mi (multiplicative inverse of Mi wrt mi)

Implementing CRT-based RNS-to-binary conversion

x =  i Mi ai ximi M =  i fi(xi) M
We can use a table to store the fi values –- i mi entries

Table 4.2 Values needed in applying the

Chinese remainder theorem to RNS(8 | 7 | 5 | 3)
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
i mi xi Mi ai ximiM
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
3 8 0 0
1 105
2 210
3 315
.. ..
. .
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 83
 Intuitive Justification for CRT
Puzzle: What number has the remainders of 2, 3, and 2
when divided by the numbers 7, 5, and 3, respectively?
x = (2 | 3 | 2)RNS(7|5|3) = (?)ten
(1 | 0 | 0)RNS(7|5|3) = multiple of 15 that is 1 mod 7 = 15
(0 | 1 | 0)RNS(7|5|3) = multiple of 21 that is 1 mod 5 = 21
(0 | 0 | 1)RNS(7|5|3) = multiple of 35 that is 1 mod 3 = 70

(2 | 3 | 2)RNS(7|5|3) = (2 | 0 | 0) + (0 | 3 | 0) + (0 | 0 | 2)
= 2  (1 | 0 | 0) + 3  (0 | 1 | 0) + 2  (0 | 0 | 1)
= 2  15 + 3  21 + 2  70
= 30 + 63 + 140
= 233 = 23 mod 105
Therefore, x = (23)ten

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 84

 4.4 Difficult RNS Arithmetic Operations
Sign test and magnitude comparison are difficult
Example: Of the following RNS(8 | 7 | 5 | 3) numbers:
Which, if any, are negative?
Which is the largest?
Which is the smallest?
Assume a range of [–420, 419]
a = (0 | 1 | 3 | 2)RNS
b = (0 | 1 | 4 | 1)RNS
Answers:
c = (0 | 6 | 2 | 1)RNS
d < c < f < a < e < b
d = (2 | 0 | 0 | 2)RNS
–70 < –8 < –1 < 8 < 21 < 64
e = (5 | 0 | 1 | 0)RNS
f = (7 | 6 | 4 | 2)RNS
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 85
 Approximate CRT Decoding
Theorem 4.1 (The Chinese remainder theorem, scaled version)
Divide both sides of CRT equality by M to get scaled version of x in [0, 1)
x = (xk–1 | . . . | x2 | x1 | x0)RNS =  i Mi ai ximi M
x/M =  i ai ximi / mi 1 =  i gi(xi) 1
where mod-1 summation implies that we discard the integer parts

Errors can be estimated and kept in check for the particular application

Table 4.3 Values needed in applying the approximate

Chinese remainder theorem decoding to RNS(8 | 7 | 5 | 3)
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
i mi xi ai ximi / mi
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
3 8 0 .0000
1 .1250
2 .2500
3 .3750
.. ..
. .
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 86
 General RNS Division
General RNS division, as opposed to division by one of the moduli
(aka scaling), is difficult; hence, use of RNS is unlikely to be effective
when an application requires many divisions

Scheme proposed in 1994 PhD thesis of Ching-Yu Hung (UCSB):

Use an algorithm that has built-in tolerance to imprecision, and apply
the approximate CRT decoding to choose quotient digits

Example –– SRT algorithm (s is the partial remainder)

s<0 quotient digit = –1
s0 quotient digit = 0
s>0 quotient digit = 1

The BSD quotient can be converted to RNS on the fly

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 87

 4.5 Redundant RNS Representations
x x
Pseudoresidue Residue
y y

[0, 15] [0, 12]

cout
00 Adder
Adder
[0, 15]
[0, 11]
Drop
Drop
Adder
Adder if cout = 1
[0, 15]
Pseudoresidue
z z

Fig. 4.3 Adding a 4-bit ordinary Fig. 4.4 A modulo-m

mod-13 residue x to a 4-bit multiply-add cell that accumulates
pseudoresidue y, producing a the sum into a double-length
4-bit mod-13 pseudoresidue z. redundant pseudoresidue.

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 88

 4.6 Limits of Fast Arithmetic in RNS
Known results from number theory

Theorem 4.2: The ith prime pi is asymptotically i ln i

Theorem 4.3: The number of primes in [1, n] is asymptotically n / ln n

Theorem 4.4: The product of all primes in [1, n] is asymptotically en

Implications to speed of arithmetic in RNS

Theorem 4.5: It is possible to represent all k-bit binary numbers

in RNS with O(k / log k) moduli such that the largest modulus
has O(log k) bits

That is, with fast log-time adders, addition needs O(log log k) time

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 89

 Limits for Low-Cost RNS

Known results from number theory

Theorem 4.6: The numbers 2a – 1 and 2b – 1 are relatively prime

iff a and b are relatively prime

Theorem 4.7: The sum of the first i primes is asymptotically O(i2 ln i)

Implications to speed of arithmetic in low-cost RNS

Theorem 4.8: It is possible to represent all k-bit binary numbers in

RNS with O((k / log k)1/2) low-cost moduli of the form 2a – 1
such that the largest modulus has O((k log k)1/2) bits

Because a fast adder needs O(log k) time, asymptotically,

low-cost RNS offers little speed advantage over standard binary

Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 90

 Disclaimer About RNS Representations
RNS representations are sometimes referred to as “carry-free”
xi+1,y i+1 x i, y i xi–1 ,y i–1 xi+1,y i+1 x i, y i Operand x i, y i2 xi–1 ,y i–1
xi–1 ,y1 i–1 xi+1,y i+1Operand

ti
s i+1 si s i–1 Mod-8 Mod-7 Mod-5 Mod-3
Unit Unit Unit s i+1 si
Unit s i–1
(Impos siblerepresentation
Positional for positional does not
s ystem with
support fixedcarry-free
totally digit set) addition; 3 3 3 2
s i+1 si s i–1
but it appears that RNS does allow Result
(a) Ideal single-stage carry-free. (b) Two-stage carry-free. (c) Single-stage with lookahead.
digitwise arithmetic
mod 8 mod 7 mod 5 mod 3

However . . . even though each RNS digit is processed independently

(for +, –, ), the size of the digit set is dependent on the desired range
(grows at least double-logarithmically with the range M, or logarithmically
with the word width k in the binary representation of the same range)
Mar. 2015 Computer Arithmetic, Number Representation Slide 91