Understanding Storage Systems and

SQL Server
Wes Brown
What we are going to learn
1. Base System Makeup
2. Disk Controllers, Host Bus Adapters, and
Interfaces
3. The Basics of Spinning Disks
4. Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks
5. SAN Basics
6. Solid State Storage Basics
7. SQL Server and The File System
8. Testing New Storage
9. Monitoring Your Storage
 System Buses
• The modern server is made
up of several buses or
controllers that talk to each
other and to the CPU.
• Front-side Bus
– Usually, memory only access
– Fastest bus on system
– Hypertransport/Quickpath
replacing FSB
• I/O Controller/Bus
– Also known as the peripheral
bus
– All onboard devices
– All expansion slots
Peripheral Buses and Speeds
Bus Type Speed MB/Sec

PCI 32-bit/33 MHz 133

PCI-X 1066

PCI Express x1, 4, 8, 16 250, 1000, 2000, 4000

PCI Express 2.0 x16, 32 8000,16000

PCI Express 3.0 x16 (2011~) 32000

Always use the fastest bus possible for your disks.

Some buses are shared (pci-x).
Disk Controllers, Host Bus Adapters,
and Interfaces
• Drive caches 2MB to 64MB+
– Adaptive Segmentation
– Pre-Fetch
• RAID Host Bus Adapters
– Read caching
– Write caching !WARNING!
• Hardened writes
• Pay now or pay later
• Writes take precedence over reads
• 16GB buffer pool vs. 256 MB IO cache, you do the math
Interface Speeds
Bus Type Speed MB/Sec
ATA/133 133
SATA/SAS 150, 300, 600 150, 300, 600
SCSI U160, U320 160, 320
Fibre Channel 1G, 2G, 4G, 8G 106, 212, 425, 850
iSCSI 1Gbit, 10Gbit 125, 1250

These are Maximum Speeds

SCSI can have 15 drives per chain so 15 drives share 320MB/Sec
SAS is compatible with SATA. There was no SAS 150.
SAS is point to point can have 600MB/sec per drive or use expanders to group 16
drives on 4 SAS 600 ports (typical arrangement)
SAS or SATA?
• SAS is the king of your heavy workloads.
• Command Queuing
• SAS supports up to 216 usually capped at 64.
• SATA supports up to 32.
• Error recovery and detection.
• SMART isn’t.
• SCSI command set is better.
• Duplex
• SAS is full duplex and dual ported per drive.
• SATA is single duplex and single ported.
• Multi-path IO
• Native to SAS at the drive level.
• Available to SATA via expanders.
Hard Drives

Six hard disk drives with cases opened showing platters and heads; 8, 5.25, 3.5, 2.5, 1.8, and 1 inch disk diameters are represented.
Author Paul R. Potts
Disk Drives
• You are only as fast as your slowest or narrowest pipe,
hard drives.
• To feed other parts of the system we have to add lots of
drives to get the desired IO single server can consume.
• The problem isn’t size is speed.
Time Circa 1981 Today Improvement

Capacity 10MB 1470MB 147x

HDD Seeks 85ms/seek 3.3ms/seek 20x

IO/Sec 11.4 IO/Sec 303 IO/Sec 26x

HDD Throughput 5mbit/sec 1000mbit/sec 200x

CPU Speed 8088 4.77Mhz (.33 MIPS) Core i7 965(18322 MIPS) 5521x
Physical Structures
• Head/Sectors/Cylinders
– Not a true physical representation!
• Data/Track Placement
– Outside tracks pack more data = more MB/Sec
– Inside tracks seek faster = more I/O Sec
– More platters don’t = more speed!
• Current HDD only have one read/write channel
Track Placement
Tracks Are A path around
the disk
Sectors are a single wedge
of a disk
Cylinder are through the
disks and are made up of
sectors
Heads do the reading and
writing
Disk Performance

• Typical 73 GB SAS/SCSI Speeds

– Rotational Speed - 15,000 RPM
– Avg. Seek for random I/O’s – Real world 5.5 ms read,
6.0ms write Theoretical 2.9 ms read, 3.3 write
– Transfer Rate – Sequential 65MB ~ 120MB/Sec
– Transfer Rate – Random 10MB ~ 30MB/Sec
• Cache can effect this block size effects this 4~64k
– Track to Track Seek for sequential I/O’s– 0.5ms read,
0.7 ms write
– Rotational Latency - 2.0 ms
Latencies

The time required to move the read/write heads over the disk surface to the required track. The seek time is
Seek Time roughly proportional to the distance the heads must move.
Rotational
Latency The time taken, after the completion of the seek, for the disk platter to spin until the first sector addressed
passes under the read/write heads. On average, the rotational latency is half of a full rotation.

Transfer Time
The time taken for the disk platter to spin until all the addressed sectors have passed under the heads.

Spindle Speed(RPM) Average Latency (ms) Typical Current Applications

5,400 5.6 IDE Desktop/Laptop
7,200 4.2 Current Standard IDE/SATA
10,000 3 High end SATA Standard SAS/SCSI
15,000 2 Current Maximum SAS/SCSI
Calculating Max Random Seeks/Sec
• Maximum Random Seeks / sec
• 1000 / (seek time[ms] + latency[ms])= IO/sec
• 1000 / (2.9+2.0) = 204 Reads/Sec
• 1000 /(3.3+2.0) = 188 Writes/Sec
• Queuing effects latency!
Maximum Utilization for Best Performance

• Maximum Write Seeks per second = 188

• Knee of Curve at 80%
• Configure for 140 I/Os per second per disk for
random I/O’s
• This is 75% of maximum capacity
• Keeps latency low!
Sequential vs. Random I/Os
• Sequential I/O is much faster
– Seek time 5.5 ms → 0.7 ms
– Same calculation yields 370 I/Os per sec
– or 277 I/Os per sec @ 75%
– > 300+ I/O’s per sec is common for sequential
• As I/Os increase so does Latency
• Sequential disk throughput can be close to
SSD’s throughput.
 RAID 0 - a.k.a. Striping

• Requires two or more disks.

• No lost drive space due to
striping.
• Fastest read and write
performance.
• Offers no data protection.
• The more disks, the more risk.
 RAID 1 - a.k.a. Mirroring

• Two disk only

• Write speed of one disk
• Read speed of two disk
• Capacity is equal to the size of
one disk
 RAID 0+1 - Mirroring Two RAID 0
Stripes
• Requires 4 or more drives
• Is a mirror of two raid zero
stripes
• Can lose two drives and still
function
• Only half the space is available
• Not the same as RAID 10
 RAID 10 - Striping Two RAID 1 Mirrors

• Best write and read

performance
• Requires 4 or more drives
• Is a set of mirrors striped
• Can loose n/2 drives where in
is the total number of drives in
the array
• Only half the capacity is
available
 RAID 5 - Striping with Parity

• Considered best compromise

• Requires 3 or more drives
• Stripe across all drives with
parity
• Can loose 1 drive and still
function
• Capacity is n-1 where n is
number of drives in array
 RAID 6 - RAID 5 on Steroids

• Double raid 5 protection

• 4 or more disk
• Is a stripe with two parity drives
• Can loose two drives and still
function
• Capacity is n-2 where n is
number of drives in array
Capacity or Performance?
• Raid 0
– 1 IOP read 1 IOP write
– No data protection
• Raid 1
– 1 IOP read 2 IOP write
– Both disk are written to both and both disk are read from
• Caveat depending on manufacturers implementation can be 2 IOP read or fastest seek
• Raid 0+1
– 1 IOP read 2 IOP write
• Raid 10
– 1 IOP read 2 IOP write
• Raid 5
– 1 IOP read 4 IOP write
– Both the target stripe and the parity stripe must be read and the parity calculated then both stripes
must be written out
• Caveat reads can be as fast as n-1 disk
• Raid 6
– 1 IOP read 6 IOP write
– Both the target stripe and the two parity stripes must be read and the parity calculated then all three
stripes must be written out
• Caveat read can be as fast as n-2 disk
Managing Disk Failures
• Raid 0 = Drive failure = Data gone.
– More disk more risk
• Raid 1 = Twice the reliability
• Raid 5 = Reliability at small scale
– More disk = higher risk
• Raid 6 = Reliability at large scale
– More GB = more risk
• Raid 10 = Reliability at any scale
– Susceptible to correlated disk failures
• Calculating failure rates is complicated
– Rule of thumb, more than 8 drives in a RAID 5 could be disastrous
– Uncorrectable read rate on large drives 1TB is a real danger
– Disks from the same batch suffer similar fate (correlated failures)
• Turn on torn page for 2000 and checksum for 2005/8
• Restore Backups regularly.
– It’s a recovery plan not a backup plan….
Configuring and Choosing Your RAID Level
• SQL Server data files
– 8k pages
– 64k extents
– 256k read ahead
• RAID cluster size should be set to 64k or 256k
– Start at 64k cluster size
– Move to 256k cluster size for better sequential throughput
– Know your IO patterns
– Generally 256k fits 99% of your needs
• Separate IO types!
– Data files tend to be random reads/writes
– Log files have zero random reads/writes
• More than one log on a drive = random reads/writes
• Better Than Putting Logs With Data Though
– Separate LUN’s with no shared disk
• Raid 1 or 10 for logs
– Heavy write load demands it
• Raid 5, 6 or 10 for data
– More than 10% writes you should start looking at raid 10
• Understand writes incur reads!
Stripe Size, Block Size, and IO Patterns
• Physical disk sectors 512 bytes,4096 bytes
– Can’t restore or attach a database from a larger
sector size on a smaller sector size disk. 4096 can go
on a 512 but not 512 on a 4096
• Be aware of possible performance penalties
RAID Array Configuration
– Stripe size and IO request size determine throughput
– Small stripes + large IO request = split IO’s
• It doesn’t add up
• 10 drives at 80MB/sec != 800MB/sec
• Rule of thumb 15 MB/sec per drive
Solid State Disks
• No moving parts, IO’s measured in Microseconds!
– So, random IO is 200x or better than HDD
• Reads faster than writes, generally
– As much as 4 to 1 depending on the manufacturer
• Wear differently than HDD
– Can loose capacity over time
– Can slow down due to wear leveling
– Several layers of error correction
• Expensive
– SAS 15k drive $2.00/GB
– SSD $8.00/GB
• Doesn’t have to be a HDD form factor!
Solid State Disks

Performance HDD SSD Improvement

Seek Times 3.3ms/seek 85μs/seek 388x
I/O/Sec 303 35000 115x
MB/Sec 100 250 2.5x

• Not all SSD’s are created equal

• Intel x25-M priced at 750.00 for 160GB in a 2.5” SATA 3.0 form factor
and the Fusion-io ioDrive Duo 640GB model priced at 15000.00 in a
PCIe 8x single card.
• why not SLC? Budget wise this is squarely in the realm of possibility.
 Solid State Vs. Solid State
Understand what you are buying and why!
Are you buying sequential read performance?
Are you buying random read performance?
Are you buying random write performance?
Are you buying reliability?
Drive GB Write Read Reads Writes seek WL/D $ $/GB $/Read $/Write
MB/Sec MB /sec /sec /Sec
IoDrive 640 1GB 1.4GB 127K 181K 80μs 5TB $15k $25.39 $0.11 $0.08
Duo
X25-M 160 70MB 250MB 35k 3.3k 85μs 100GB $750 $4.60 $0.02 $0.22
Imp. -4x -14x -5x -4x -55x ~ -10x -20x -5x -5x 3x
Storage Area Networks

Storage Area Networks/IP Storage

Essentially a specialized computer system
Specialized network using Fibre Channel
Or Ethernet via iSCSI
Great for redundancy or clustering
Focused on storage consolidation not storage speed
NAS is not a SAN!
Storage Area Networks

• Internal Disk Configuration

– Disks are broken up into slices
– Slices are grouped into Logical Unit Numbers (LUNs)
• These are presented as volumes to your host
– Size for IO loads not disk space!
– Don’t share your disks with other applications like
Exchange
• You and your Exchange admin will both be very sad
– Watch for hot spots
SQL Server and The File System
• Log Writes
– Sequential 512 bytes to 64KB
• Data File Read/Writes
– 8KB
• Read ahead – more important to Enterprise Edition
– 8KB to 125KB
• Bulk Insert
– 8KB to 128KB
• Create Database
– 512 byte – full initialize on log file only.
• Backup Sequential Read/Write
– 1 MB
• Restore Sequential Read/Write
– 64K
• DBCC – CHECKDB
– Sequential Read 8K – 64K
• DBCC – DBREINDEX
– (Read Phase Sequential (see Read Ahead) Write Phase Sequential
– Any multiple of 8K up to 128K
• DBCC – SHOWCONTIG
– Sequential Read 8K – 64K
SQL Server and The File System
• http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc966500.aspx
• ACID and WAL
– ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability) is what makes our database reliable. The
ability to recover from a catastrophic failure is key to protecting your data.
– WAL (Write-Ahead Logging) is how ACID is achieved. Basically, the log record must be flushed to
disk before the data file is modified.
• Stable Media
– Stable media isn’t just the disk drive. A controller with a battery backed cache is also considered
stable.
• FUA (Forced Unit Access)
– FILE_FLAG_WRITETHROUGH tells the underlying OS not to use write caching that isn’t
considered stable media.
– FILE_FLAG_NO_BUFFERING tells the OS not to buffer the file either.
• File Access
– SQL Server uses asynchronous access for data and log files.
– SQL Server will try and gather writes to the data file into bigger blocks
– The log is always written to sequentially.

• All of these rules to everything but tempdb. Since tempdb is recreated at restart every time
recoverability isn’t an issue.
SQL Server and The File System
• Format data partitions to 64k cluster size for
performance. SQL Server reads in 64k chunks if
possible
• Sector alignment to prevent split I/O’s
– MBR occupies the first 63 sectors leaving your
partition starting on the 64th
– Use diskpar (windows 2000/2003 pre sp1)
– Use diskpart (windows 2003 sp1 or greater)
– Windows 2008 aligns out of the box on 1MB
– Disk defrag will not fix this!
– Full partition format will not fix this!
Testing New Systems
• SQLIO
– http://sqlserverio.com/2010/06/15/fundamentals-of-storage-
testing-io-systems/
– Tests Reads OR Writes
• Not the best for truly mixed workloads
• Find maximum capacity and bigger issues
• ioMeter
– http://www.iometer.org/
• http://sqlserverio.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/sqlserveriopatterns.doc
– General IO System Tester
– Very flexible
• Test mixed workloads
• Can be difficult to use
Monitoring Performance
• Response Time = Service Time + Wait Time
• Disk Queue Length
– More relevant 10 year ago than today
– Caches mask DQ
– Focus on latency and waits
– sys.dm_io_virtual_file_stats
• Gives you time to read and write IO’s
• Gives you amount of data written and read at the file level
• Great for finding SAN hot spots
• http://sqlserverio.com/2011/02/08/gather-virtual-file-statistics-
using-t-sql-tsql2sday-15/
– sys.dm_os_wait_stats
• Gives you what SQL Server is doing besides IO
• Only at a instance level
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Understanding SQL Server and Storage Systems
Wesley Brown
[email protected]
Twitter @WesBrownSQL
Blog http://www.sqlserverio.com
http://www.wesworld.net/raidcalculator.html
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