Syntax (1)

Dr. Ansa Hameed

Previously….

 Morphology
 Morpheme
 Types of Morphemes
 Words
 Aspects of Morpheme
 Item and Arrangement Morphology
Today’s Lecture

 Levels of Language
 Phonology
 Phonetics
 Morphology
 Syntax
 Semantics
 Pragmatics
From Morphology to Syntax
 From Morphology to Syntax

 Morphology: study of internal composition of words

Words are arranged and combined at different levels

Phrases, clauses, sentences

 Study of sentences: syntax

From Morphology to Syntax

 Lady, shoes--- noun

 Red--- adjective Morphology
 Buying --- verb (content/lexical word)

 The lady was buying red shoes. Syntax

(sentence)
Syntax

 ‘Syntax is the way words and clauses are arranged to

form sentences’
 Etymology:
Syn – tax

Latin Greek
Together to put in order

‘Putting things together in an orderly manner’

that is syntax (Prasad, 73)
Syntax
 Definitions:

 Syntax means sentence construction: how words group

together to make phrases and sentences (Tallerman, 1)
 The Part of grammar that represents a speaker’s
knowledge of sentences and their structures is called
syntax (Fromkin, 159)
 Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences.
Syntax

 The syntax of English –the third level of

grammar and the third level of analysis –deals
with the more complex combinations of
linguistic forms.
 Identification of a word class is not, then, a matter of “What do these
words mean?” but “How do they fit into a pattern?” “What forms will they
take?” and “How do they behave in combination with other forms?” (1999,
Herndon)
Syntax

 Syntax not Grammar:

 Syntax is different from grammar

 Grammar includes all organizing principles of a language
(sound system, form of words, words arrangement to
make sentences etc)
 Grammar is a whole, syntax is a part
Syntax: Why Syntax is Important???

 We speak in sentences not in words. To understand

the structure of a language it is necessary to study
the structure of sentences.
 If we learn to analyze the structure of sentences, we
will also learn to analyze their meaning.
 The study of syntax is the study of the function of
words, which is necessary to understand the
structure and the meaning of a language.
Syntax: Rules
What the Rules of syntax Do?????

1. Combine words in to phrases and phrases in to

sentences
a girl, in the garden (phrases)
I saw a girl in the garden. (sentence)

2. Specify correct word order

Sara ate chocolates.
Chocolates ate Sara.*
Syntax: Rules
3. Describe relationship between meanings of a particular
group of words and the arrangement of those words
He burps what he means.
He means what he burps.
(Same words but different meanings)

4. Specify the grammatical relations of a sentence , such as subject and direct

object (makes it clear who is doing what to whom). This information is
crucial in understanding the meaning of a sentence.
My dog chased your cat.
Your cat chased my dog.
Syntax: Rules
 5. Specify other constraints that sentences must adhere to.

The boy found. *

The boy found quickly.*
The boy found the ball.
(Last sentence is correct because verb ‘found’ must be followed by sth.,
needs an object, a noun object not adv.)

She slept the baby. *

She slept soundly.
(Last sentence is correct because verb ‘slept’ needs an adverb rather than a
noun)
Syntax:
Paradigmatic view
Syntax: Study of Sentences

Syntax is study of sentences

What is a sentence???

 A sentence is basically a string of words that follow

the grammatical rules of a language.
 A sentence expresses a complete thought
 A sentence is made up of phrases. At the very least a
sentence contains a verb phrase (also known as the
predicate) and a subject.
Syntax: Study of Sentences

 When smaller structures enter into combinations,

some consideration must be given to the relationship
holding between them within the combination. For
example, “Birds fly” consists of structures commonly
called noun and verb.
 The combination is a larger structure called a
sentence.
 Within the sentence both words have a structure
and a function.
Syntax: Study of Sentences

 Syntax studies two cardinal points in sentences:

1. Form of sentence (related to internal structure of

phrase: noun phrase, verb phrase……)
2. Function of sentence (related to relational concepts
like subject, object…..)
Sentence: Possible Components
according to function

 Subject: obligatory element; it specifies the entity

about which we will say something (the doer of the
action, the entity described, etc.)

 He is opening the door.

 Sara finished her work.

 Object: obligatory element, it completes the

meaning of a word or sentence.

 He is opening the door.

 I watch television.
Sentence: Possible Components
according to function

 Subject or Object Complement: obligatory element that

adds a description of the subject or the object. These function
also receive the names of Attribute and Predicative.

 They became angry.

 Modifier: optional element; adds additional information that

specifies a noun

 Ali, my best friend, is absent today.

Sentence: Possible Components
according to function

 Adverbial: optional element; modifies a verb,

adjective or adverb

 Children are playing in the ground.

 Verb: doing element

 They are playing outside.

Sentence: Possible Components
according to function (Summary)
Sentence: Components according to from

Syntax is study of sentences.

Sentences are often composed of phrases.
What is a phrase?

 A phrase is a part of a sentence. It does not express

a complete thought.
 A phrase is a group of words that function as a single
unit. Usually they can be substituted by a pronominal
form.
Sentence: Components according to from

 Parts of Phrases:
 Nucleus/ Head: All phrases have one word which is
the nucleus, the head. The head of a phrase
determines the kind of phrase we have: Noun Phrase,
Adjective Phrase, Adverb Phrase, Prepositional Phrase
or Verb Phrase.

 Surrounding Information: All related information

about the head
Sentence: Components according to from

 Types of Phrases:
 Noun Phrase
 Adjective Phrase
 Adverb Phrase
 Prepositional Phrase
 Verb Phrase
Sentence: Components according to from

 Noun Phrase
 A Noun Phrase (NP) is a phrase that is made up of at least
one noun (or a pronoun). The noun is the head of the NP.
 NPs usually function as:
 Subjects: THE MAN spoke loudly.
 Objects: I met YOUR FRIEND yesterday.
I’ll see you after THE CLASS.
 Subject Complements: She is A DOCTOR.
 Adverbials: Anna got married LAST MONTH.
Sentence: Components according to from

 Adjective Phrase
 An Adjective Phrase (AP) is a phrase that is made
up of at least one adjective. The adjective is the head
of the NP.
 APs usually function as:
 Modifiers: I saw a SMALL child.
 Subject Complements: She is not HAPPY.
 Object Complements: I consider Peter STUPID.
Sentence: Components according to from

 Adverb Phrase:
 An Adverb Phrase (AdvP) is a phrase that is made
up of at least one adverb. The adverb is the head of
the AdvP.
 AdvPs usually function as:
 Adverbials:
Andy was VERY late.
Sally works HARD.
Sentence: Components according to from

 Prepositional Phrase:
 A Prepositional Phrase (PP) is a phrase that is made up of
at least one preposition usually followed by a NP that
functions as the object of the preposition. The preposition is
the head of the PP.
 PPs usually function as:
 Adverbials: Anna got married IN JULY.
 Objects: I put the book ON THE TABLE.
I bought a ring FOR MY MOTHER
Sentence: Components according to from

 Prepositional Phrase as Adjectival or Adverbial

Phrase
 A prepositional phrase can also serve as adjectival or
adverbial phrase.
 If prepositional phrase answers questions like which one?
It is adjectival phrase.
The lady in the red dress is my teacher.
The movie on the T.V is boring.
The ice in the juice was melting.
Sentence: Components according to from

 If prepositional phrase answers questions like where,

when, how, how many, how often…. It is adverbial phrase.
The lady is sitting in the next room.
The boys were on the lift.
They played in groups.
Sentence: Components according to from

 Verb Phrase
 A Verb Phrase (VP) is a phrase that is
made up of at least one verb.
 Verb phrases often contain noun phrases,
prepositional phrases or adverb phrases
that function as objects or adverbials of
the verb. The verb is the head of the VP.
 VPs function as the head of the clause.
Recap

 Syntax
 Sentence
 Phrases
References
 Falk, Julia. Linguistics and Language. 1978.
 Fromkin, Rodman & Hymas. 2007. Language: Nature,
Psychology and Grammatical Aspects. Us: Wadsworth
 Hocket, F. C. A Course in Modern Linguistics. New Delhi:
Oxford. 1958
 Parsad,Tarni, A Course in Linguistics, 2012, New Dehli: PHI
 Rajimwale, Sharad, Elements of General Linguistics, 2006.
 Strang, Barbara. Modern English Structure. Edward Arnold. 1968.
 Tallerman. Understanding Syntax.
 Valin, R. D.V. An Introduction to Syntax. Cambridge Press. 2001
 Yule, George. The Study of Language. 1996.