Discrete Mathematics

Lecture 9
Alexander Bukharovich
New York University
 Graphs
• Graph consists of two sets: set V of vertices
and set E of edges.
• Terminology: endpoints of the edge, loop
edges, parallel edges, adjacent vertices,
isolated vertex, subgraph, bridge edge
• Directed graph (digraph) has each edge as
an ordered pair of vertices
 Special Graphs
• Simple graph is a graph without loop or parallel edges
• A complete graph of n vertices Kn is a simple graph which
has an edge between each pair of vertices
• A complete bipartite graph of (n, m) vertices Kn,m is a
simple graph consisting of vertices, v1, v2, …, vm and w1,
w2, …, wn with the following properties:
– There is an edge from each vertex vi to each vertex wj
– There is no edge from any vertex vi to any vertex vj
– There is no edge from any vertex wi to any vertex wj
 The Concept of Degree
• The degree of a vertex deg(v) is a number
of edges that have vertex v as an endpoint.
Loop edge gives vertex a degree of 2
• In any graph the sum of degrees of all
vertices equals twice the number of edges
• The total degree of a graph is even
• In any graph there are even number of
vertices of odd degree
 Exercises
• Two jugs have capacities of of 3 and 5 gallons. Can you
use these jugs to measure out exactly one gallon?
• Bipartite graphs
• Complement of a graph
• What is the relationship between the number of edges
between a graph and its complement
• Can there be a simple graph that has vertices each of
different degree?
• In a group of two or more people, must there be at least
two people who are acquainted with the same number of
people?
 Paths and Circuits
• A walk in a graph is an alternating sequence of adjacent
vertices and edges
• A path is a walk that does not contain a repeated edge
• Simple path is a path that does not contain a repeated
vertex
• A closed walk is a walk that starts and ends at the same
vertex
• A circuit is a closed walk that does not contain a repeated
edge
• A simple circuit is a circuit which does not have a repeated
vertex except for the first and last
 Connectedness
• Two vertices of a graph are connected when there is a walk
between two of them.
• The graph is called connected when any pair of its vertices
is connected
• If graph is connected, then any two vertices can be
connected by a simple path
• If two vertices are part of a circuit and one edge is
removed from the circuit then there still exists a path
between these two vertices
• Graph H is called a connected component of graph G when
H is a subgraph of G, H is connected and H is not a
subgraph of any bigger connected graph
• Any graph is a union of connected components
 Euler Circuit
• Euler circuit is a circuit that contains every vertex and
every edge of a graph. Every edge is traversed exactly
once.
• If a graph has Euler circuit then every vertex has even
degree. If some vertex of a graph has odd degree then the
graph does not have an Euler circuit
• If every vertex of a graph has even degree and the graph is
connected then the graph has an Euler circuit
• A Euler path is a path between two vertices that contains
all vertices and traverces all edge exactly ones
• There is an Euler path between two vertices v and w iff
vertices v and w have odd degrees and all other vertices
have even degrees
 Hamiltonian Circuit
• Hamiltonian circuit is a simple circuit that
contains all vertices of the graph (and each
exactly once)
• Traveling salesperson problem
 Exercises
• For what values of m and n, does the
complete bipartite graph of (m, n) vertices
have an Euler circuit, a Hamiltonian circuit?
• What is the maximum number of edges a
simple disconnected graph with n vertices
can have?
• Show that a graph is bipartite iff it does not
have a circuit with an odd number of edges
Matrix Representation of a Graph
• Adjacency matrix
• Undirected graphs and symmetric matrices
• Number of walks of a particular length
between two vertices
 Isomorphism of Graphs
• Two graphs G = (V, E) and G’ = (V’, E’) are called isomorphic when
there exist two bijective functions g : V  V’ and h : E  E’ so that if
v is an endpoint of e iff g(v) is an endpoint of h(e)
• Property P is called an isomorphic invariant when given any two
isomorphic graphs G and G’, G has property P, then G’ has property P
as well
• The following properties are isomorphic invariants:
– Number of vertices, number of edges
– Number of vertices of a particular degree
– Connectedness
– Possession of a circuit of a particular length
– Possession of Euler circuit, Hamiltonian circuit22222
 Trees
• Connected graph without circuits is called a tree
• Graph is called a forest when it does not have circuits
• A vertex of degree 1 is called a terminal vertex or a leaf,
the other vertices are called internal nodes
• Decision tree
• Syntactic derivation tree
• Any tree with more than one vertex has at least one vertex
of degree 1
• Any tree with n vertices has n – 1 edges
• If a connected graph with n vertices has n – 1 edges, then it
is a tree
 Rooted Trees
• Rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex is
distinguished and called a root
• Level of a vertex is the number of edges between
the vertex and the root
• The height of a rooted tree is the maximum level
of any vertex
• Children, siblings and parent vertices in a rooted
tree
• Ancestor, descendant relationship between
vertices
 Binary Trees
• Binary tree is a rooted tree where each internal
vertex has at most two children: left and right. Left
and right subtrees
• Full binary tree
• Representation of algebraic expressions
• If T is a full binary tree with k internal vertices
then T has a total of 2k + 1 vertices and k + 1 of
them are leaves
• Any binary tree with t leaves and height h satisfies
the following inequality: t  2h
 Spanning Trees
• A subgraph T of a graph G is called a spanning
tree when T is a tree and contains all vertices of G
• Every connected graph has a spanning tree
• Any two spanning trees have the same number of
edges
• A weighted graph is a graph in which each edge
has an associated real number weight
• A minimal spanning tree (MST) is a spanning tree
with the least total weight of its edges
 Finding Minimal Spanning Tree
• Kruskal’s algorithm
• Prim’s algorithm
 Exercises
• If all edges in a graph have different
weights, does this graph have a unique
MST?