1

CELLULAR AND MOBILE

COMMUNICATIONS
.
 TEXT BOOKS
2

1.Mobile and Cellular Telecommunications-W.C.Y.Lee

2nd Edn, 1989.
2. Wireless Communications – Theodore, S. Rappaport,
PHI, 2nd Edn., 2002.
 UNIT-I
3

 INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR MOBILE RADIO

SYSTEMS:
Introduction,
Limitations of conventional mobile telephone systems,
Basic Cellular Mobile System,
Generations of cellular wireless systems,
Uniqueness of mobile radio environment-Long term fading,
Factors influencing short term fading,
Parameters of mobile multipath fading,
Time dispersion parameters, Coherence bandwidth
Doppler spread and coherence time
Types of small scale fading.
 Mobile Communication
4

It is the process of communication while moving

around a wide geographic area.
Portable - hand-held devices used at walking
speed.
Stay connected in everywhere we go.
Stay connected in many ways
(e.g.Calls,video,etc)
Communication facility between stationary and
mobile or mobile and mobile users ( units )
 Concept of Mobile Communication
5

A conventional mobile telephone system is

usually designed by selecting autonomous
geographic zones.(50miles)
one or more channels from a specific
frequency allocation for use in the geographic
zones.
High powered transmitters are used for
coverage.
Mobile Communication Operation
6
 Classification of Wireless Systems
7

Simplex- communication is possible in only one

direction….e.g. Paging systems

Half duplex-Two way communication but not

simultaneous…..e.g. Walkie-Talkies

Full duplex-Two way simultaneous

communication…..e.g. cellular systems
8
 DUPLEXING
9

In wireless communication systems ,it is often

desirable to allow the user to send simultaneously
information to the base station while receiving
information from the base station.
Duplexing is done either using frequency or time
domain techniques:
Frequency division duplexing (FDD)
Time division duplexing (TDD)
FDD - is more suitable for radio communication
systems,
TDD- is more suitable for fixed wireless systems
 Limitations of Conventional Mobile
Telephone Systems
10

One of many reasons for developing a cellular mobile

telephone system and deploying it in many cities is
the operational limitations of conventional mobile
telephone systems:
Limited service capability,

Poor service performance,

Inefficient frequency spectrum utilization.

 Limited service capability:
11

Each area is allocated with one or more channels.

Which is large autonomous geographic zone.
The transmitted power should be as high as the
federal specification allows.
The user who starts a call in one zone has to reinitiate
the call when moving into a new zone because the call
will be dropped.
 Conventional Mobile System
12
13

The handoff is a process of automatically changing

frequencies as the mobile unit moves into a different
frequency zone so that the conversation can be
continued in a new frequency zone without redialing.

Another disadvantage of the conventional system is

that the number of active users is limited to the
number of channels assigned to a particular frequency
zone.
 Poor Service Performance
14

In the past, a total of 33 channels were all allocated

to three mobile telephone systems.
Mobile Telephone Service (MTS)-40MHz
Improved MTS (IMTS) MJ-150MHz
Improved MTS (IMTS) MK -450MHz
6 channels of MJ serving 320 customers, with
another 2400 customers on a waiting list.
6 channels of MK serving 225 customers, with
another 1300 customers on a waiting list.
15

The large number of subscribers created a high

blocking probability during busy hours.

Although service performance was undesirable, the

demand was still great.

A high-capacity system for mobile telephones was

needed.
 Inefficient frequency spectrum utilization
16

The frequency utilization measurement (Mo), is

defined as the maximum number of customers that
could be served by one channel at the busy hour.

Mo = Number of customers/channel

Mo = 53 for MJ system

37 for MK system
17

The offered load can then be obtained by

A = Average calling time (minutes) x total customers /

60 min (Erlangs)

Assume average calling time = 1.76 min.

A1 = 1.76 x53 x 6 / 60 = 9.33 Erlangs (MJ system)

A2 = 1.76 x 37 x 6 / 60 = 6.51 Erlangs (MK system)

18

If the number of channels is 6 and the offered loads are

A1 = 9.33 and A2 = 6.51, then from the Erlang B model the
blocking probabilities,
B1 = 50 percent (MJ system)
B2 =30 percent (MK system),
It is likely that half the initiating calls will be blocked in the
MJ system, a very high blocking probability.
19

If the actual average calling time is greater than 1.76 min,

the blocking probability can be even higher.
To reduce blocking probability we must decrease Mo.
As far as frequency spectrum utilization is concerned, the
conventional system does not utilize the spectrum efficiently
since each channel can only serve one customer at a time in a
whole area.
This is overcome by the new cellular system.
20

Limited service capability,

Poor service performance,

Inefficient frequency spectrum utilization.

Finally we need to increase the capacity(efficiency) of
the system by giving service to maximum number of
customers with available resources(frequency
spectrum).
Mobile communications Cellular communications
 Cellular Concept:
21

Replacing a single, high power transmitter (large cell)

with many low power transmitters (small cells).
Each providing coverage to only a small portion of
the service area.
Each base station is allocated a portion of the total
number of channels available to the entire system,
Nearby base stations are assigned different groups of
channels.
All the available channels are assigned to a relatively
small number of neighboring base stations.
 Cellular Concept(contd)
22
23

Neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of

channels.
The interference between base stations (and the mobile
users under their control) is minimized.
Frequency spectrum may be reused as many times by
systematically spacing base stations and their channel
groups in a given geographic area.
Co-channel interference.
24
 Cell:
25

Cell is the small geographic area covered by the

base station.
The area around an antenna where a specific
frequency range is used.
Cell is represented graphically as a hexagonal
shape, but in reality it is irregular in shape.

cell
 Cluster:
26

A cluster is a group of adjacent cells.

No frequency reuse is done within a cluster.
Number of cells in cluster N=i2+ij+j2
2
1 7 3
1
3 1
3
2 6 4
2
4 5

3-cell cluster 4-cell cluster 7-cell cluster

 Basic Cellular Mobile System
27

A basic cellular system consists of three

subsystems.
A mobile unit,
A cell site, and
A mobile telephone switching office (MTSO)
 Basic Cellular Mobile System
28
29

Mobile units:
A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit, a
transceiver, and an antenna system.
Cell site:
The cell site provides interface between the MTSO and
the mobile units.
It has a control unit, radio cabinets, antennas, a power
plant, and data terminals.
30

MTSO:
The switching office, the central coordinating element for
all cell sites,
contains the cellular processor and cellular switch.
It interfaces with telephone company zone offices, controls
call processing, provides operation and maintenance, and
handles billing activities.
The cellular switch, switches calls to connect mobile
subscribers to other mobile subscribers and to the
nationwide telephone network.
Its processor provides central coordination and cellular
administration.
31
Evolution of Mobile Communication
32

1G or 1st generation mobile phones were the earliest

cellular systems that were developed in early 80’s.
Analog cellular networks
Voice communication.
Were very limited in capacity.
Speed up to 2.4kbps.
Systems using 1G :
AMPS,
TACS,
NMT
33

Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)

FDMA for control and FDD for two way transmission.
825 MHz to 890 MHz frequency range.
824 MHz -849 MHz (uplink), 869 MHz-894 MHz (downlink).
Total Access Communication System (TACS)
Sweden, Norway, Demark & Finland
890 MHz - 915 MHz –uplink &935 MHz -960 MHz downlink.
Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT)
Introduced to Europe in 1981.
450 MHz and 900 MHz
 Features of 1G Mobile Technology
34

Analogue system.
Mobility –can take the cellular where needed
Circuit switched technology.
Basic voice calls only.
Limited local & regional coverage.
Phones were large in size.
Low capacity.
 1G Mobile Systems
35
 2G Mobile Communication
36

Digital cellular technology

Digital multiplexing-TDMA,CDMA
Developed in Europe and the US
Offer support for simple non-voice services like SMS
(short messaging service)
Speed up to 64kbps
Systems using 2G
GSM,
TDMA(IS-136)
CDMA(IS-95)
 2G Mobile Systems
37

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA).
900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz
(IS-136 TDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA).
IS-136 referred to as Digital AMPS (DAMPS).
CDMA(IS-95)
IS-95 is based on CDMA/DSSS and FDMA.
800 MHz & 1900 MHz bands.
 Features of 2G Mobile Technology
38

Digital system,
Better voice quality,
Higher capacity,
Lower power consumption.
Short Messaging Service
39
 2.5G Mobile Communication
40

Packet Based Cellular that have been enhanced to

provide for advanced communication applications
Speed up to 64-144kbps.
Systems use 2.5G:
GPRS (General Packet Radio service)
EDGE (Enhanced Data rate for GSM Evolution)
 Features of 2.5G Mobile Technology
41

Wireless application protocol (WAP) access,

Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS),
Internet communication services such
E-mail and
World Wide Web access.
Camera
 3G Mobile Technology
42

 3rd generation was introduced in 2000.

 Data speed up to 144kbps-2Mbps.
 Smart phones
 Systems using 3G:
IMT 2000
WCDMA
CDMA2000
 Features of 3G Mobile Technology
43

Providing faster communication.

Send/receive large email messages
Video conferencing and 3D gaming
High speed web
TV streaming-Mobile TV
Less time to download MP3 songs and data
44
Uniqueness Of Mobile Radio Environment
45

The mobile radio channel places fundamental

limitations on the performance of wireless
communication systems.
The transmission Paths can vary from simple line-of-
sight to ones that are severely obstructed by
buildings, mountains, and foliage.
Radio channels are extremely random and difficult
to analyze.
46
 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
47

Radio wave propagation is affected by the

following mechanisms:
Reflection - large obstacles
Scattering - small obstacles
Diffraction - edges
48

Reflection:
Reflection occurs when a radio wave collides with an
object which has very large dimensions compared to the
wavelength of the propagating wave.
- e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
Diffraction:
Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed
by surface with sharp irregular edges,
Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS (line
of sight) does not exist.
49

Scattering:
Scattering occurs when the radio wave travels through
a medium consisting of objects with dimensions that
are small compared to the wave’s wavelength.
- e.g, foliage, street signs, lamp posts..

scattering diffraction
reflection
50
51
52

Due to multiple reflections from various objects ,the

electromagnetic waves travel along different paths of
varying lengths. Which result in multipath propagation.
In multipath scenario, several copies of the same signal
arrive at the receiver with different path lengths at
different times and with varying amplitudes and phases.
The strengths of the waves decrease as the distance
between the transmitter and receiver increases.
Fading is deviation of the attenuation affecting a signal
over certain propagation media.
53

Fading is of two types

Large scale fading
Small scale fading
Large scale fading: average signal power
attenuation/path loss due to motion over large areas.
Small scale fading: Large variation in signal power
due to small changes in the distance between the
transmitter and receiver.
54

Propagation models have traditionally focused on

predicting the average received signal strength at
a given distance from the transmitter.
Propagation models of two types depends on the
power measured in certain distance /time.
Large-scale propagation model
Small-scale or fading model
55

Propagation models that predict the mean signal

strength for an arbitrary transmitter-receiver (T-R)
separation distance are useful in estimating the
radio coverage area of a transmitter and are
called large-scale propagation models
since they characterize signal strength over large T-
R separation distances (several hundreds or
thousands of meters).
56

propagation models that characterize the rapid

fluctuations of the received signal strength over very
short travel distances (a few wavelengths) or short
time durations (on the order of seconds) are called
small-scale or fading models.
57
 Large Scale Fading
58

The free space propagation model is used to

predict received signal strength.
Transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed
line-of-sight path between them.
Satellite communication systems and microwave line-
of-sight radio link.
Free Space Propagation Model
The free space power received by a receiver
antenna which is separated from a radiating
transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the
Friis free space equation,
59

The free space power received by a receiver is

Pt is the transmitted power

Pr(d) is the received power
Gt is the transmitter antenna gain,
Gr is the receiver antenna gain
d is the T-R separation distance in meters,
L is the system loss factor/spatial attenuation.
60

The gain of an antenna is related to its effective

aperture( Ae).

The effective aperture is related to the physical size

of the antenna.
The frequency is related as
61

The path loss for the free space model when

antenna gains are included is given by

When antenna gains are excluded, the antennas

are assumed to have unity gain, and path loss is
given by
 Small Scale Fading
62

Small-scale fading, or simply fading, is used to

describe the rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a
radio signal over a short period of time or travel
distance.
Multipath in the radio channel creates small-scale
fading effects.
Rapid changes in signal strength -small travel distance or
time interval
Random frequency modulation -varying Doppler shifts
Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath
propagation delays.
 Factors influencing short term fading
63

Many physical factors in the radio propagation

channel influence small scale fading.
Multipath propagation.
Speed of the mobile.
Speed of surrounding objects.
The transmission bandwidth of the signal.
 Multipath Propagation.
64

The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers in the

channel creates a constantly changing environment that
dissipates the signal energy in amplitude, phase, and
time.
These effects result in multipath propagation.
The multipath propagation results fluctuations in signal
strength, thereby inducing small-scale fading, signal
distortion, or both.
Multipath propagation often lengthens the time required
for the baseband portion of the signal to reach the
receiver which can cause signal smearing due to
intersymbol interference.
 Speed Of The Mobile
65

The relative motion between the base station and the

mobile results in random frequency modulation.
Different Doppler shifts on each of the multipath
components.
Doppler shift will be positive- moving toward BS.
Doppler shift will be negative-away from the BS.
The phase change in the received signal due to the
difference in path and results in change in frequency.
Doppler shift positive-increase in frequency.
Doppler shift negative-decrease in frequency.
 Speed Of Surrounding Objects
66

If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they

induce a time varying Doppler shift on multipath
components.
If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate
than the mobile, then this effect dominates the small-
scale fading.
Otherwise, motion of surrounding objects may be
ignored, and only the speed of the mobile need be
considered.
The Transmission Bandwidth Of The Signal
67

If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than

the "bandwidth" of the multipath channel, the received
signal will be distorted, but the received signal strength
will not fade much over a local area.
The bandwidth of the channel can be quantified by the
coherence bandwidth which is related to the specific
multipath structure of the channel.
The coherence bandwidth is a measure of the maximum
frequency difference for which signals are still strongly
correlated in amplitude.
If the transmitted signal has a narrow bandwidth as
compared to the channel, the amplitude of the signal will
change rapidly, but the signal will not be distorted in time.
Parameters Of Mobile Multipath Fading
68

Many multipath channel parameters are derived from

the power delay profile.
Power delay profiles are generally represented as plots
of relative received power as a function of excess delay
with respect to a fixed time delay reference.
Power delay profiles are found by averaging
instantaneous power delay profile measurements over a
local area in order to determine an average small-scale
power delay profile.
69
 Time Dispersion Parameters
70

Multipath channel parameters can be given as

Mean excess delay
RMS delay spread
Excess delay spread
These parameters can be determined from power
delay profile.
The time dispersive properties of multipath channels
are most commonly quantified by their mean excess
delay and rms delay spread .
71

Mean excess delay

RMS delay spread

where
72

Depends only on the relative amplitude of the multipath

components.
Typical RMS delay spreads
Outdoor: on the order of microseconds
Indoor: on the order of nanoseconds
Maximum excess delay (X dB) is defined to be the time
delay during which multipath energy falls to X dB
below the maximum.
excess delay =
73
 Coherent Bandwidth(Bc)
74

Coherent band width ,Bc , is a statistic measure of the

range of frequencies over which the channel can be
considered to be “flat”.
A channel which passes all spectral components with
approximately equal gain and linear phase.
Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than
Bc are affected quite differently by the channel.
75

If the coherent bandwidth is defined as the

bandwidth over which the frequency correlation
function is above 0.9, then the coherent bandwidth
is approximately.

If the frequency correlation function is above 0.5

 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
76

Doppler spread and coherent time are parameters

which describe the time varying nature of the channel
in a small-scale region.
When a pure sinusoidal tone of fc is transmitted, the
received signal spectrum, called the Doppler
spectrum, will have components in the range fc-fd and
fc+fd, where fd is the Doppler shift.
77

 Coherent time Tc is the time domain dual of Doppler

spread.
 Coherent time is used to characterize the time varying
nature of the frequency dispersiveness of the channel
in the time domain.
78

Two signals arriving with a time separation greater

than Tc are affected differently by the channel.
A statistic measure of the time duration over which
the channel impulse response is essentially
invariant.
If the coherent time is defined as the time over
which the time correlation function is above 0.5,
then
 Types of Small-Scale Fading
79

The type of fading experienced by a signal propagating

through a mobile radio channel depends on the nature
of the transmitted signal with respect to the
characteristics of the channel.
signal parameters as bandwidth, symbol period.
channel parameters as rms delay and Doppler spread.
Multipath delay spread leads to time dispersion and
frequency selective fading.
Doppler spread leads to frequency dispersion and time
selective fading.
80
81
 Flat Fading
82

Time dispersion due to multipath causes the

transmitted signal to undergo either flat or frequency
selective fading.
If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain and
linear phase response over a bandwidth which is
greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal,
then the received signal will undergo flat fading.
The received signal strength changes with time due to
fluctuations in the gain fo the channel caused by
multipath.
83

The characteristics of a flat fading channel are illustrated in Figure

84

 It can be seen from that if the channel gain changes

over time, a change of amplitude occurs in the
received signal.
 Over time, the received signal r(t) varies in gain, but
the spectrum of the transmission is preserved.
 Flat fading channel is also called amplitude varying
channel.
 Also called narrow band channel: bandwidth of the
applied signal is narrow as compared to the channel
bandwidth
85

 Time varying statistics: Rayleigh flat fading.

 A signal undergoes flat fading if

 and
 Frequency selective fading
86

If the channel possesses a constant-gain and linear

phase response over a bandwidth that is smaller
than the bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the
channel creates frequency selective fading.
87

Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion

of the transmitted symbols within the channel.
Induces inter symbol interference.
Frequency selective fading channels are much more
difficult to model than flat fading channels.
Statistic impulse response model
2-ray Rayleigh fading model
computer generated
measured impulse response
For frequency selective fading
88

Frequency selective fading channel characteristics

 Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread
89

Small scale Fading Effects Due to Doppler

Spread are of two types.
Fast Fading.
Slow Fading.
90

Fast Fading: The channel impulse response changes

rapidly within the symbol duration.
The coherent time of the channel is smaller then the
symbol period of the transmitted signal.
Cause frequency dispersion due to Doppler spreading.
A signal undergoes fast fading if

and
91

Slow Fading: The channel impulse response changes

at a rate much slower than the transmitted
baseband signal s(t).
The Doppler spread of the channel is much less then the
bandwidth of the baseband signal.
A signal undergoes slow fading if

and
92
93