VIBRATIONS,

WAVES,
AND SOUND
OBJECTIVES
• Relate the amplitude, frequency, angular frequency, period, displacement, velocity, and
acceleration of oscillating systems
• Recognize the necessary conditions for an object to undergo simple harmonic motion
• Analyze the motion of an oscillating system using energy and Newton’s 2nd law approaches
• Calculate the period and the frequency of spring mass, simple pendulum, and physical
pendulum
• Differentiate underdamped, overdamped, and critically damped motion
• Describe the conditions for resonance
• Perform an experiment involving periodic motion and analyze the data—identifying
discrepancies between theoretical expectations and experimental results when appropriate
• Define mechanical wave, longitudinal wave, transverse wave, periodic wave, and sinusoidal
wave
• From a given sinusoidal wave function infer the (speed, wavelength, frequency, period,
direction, and wave number
• Calculate the propagation speed, power transmitted by waves on a string with given tension,
mass, and length
OBJECTIVES
• Apply the inverse-square relation between the intensity of waves and the
distance from the source
• Describe qualitatively and quantitatively the superposition of waves
• Apply the condition for standing waves on a string
• Relate the frequency (source dependent) and wavelength of sound with the
motion of the source and the listener
• Solve problems involving sound and mechanical waves in contexts such as, but
not limited to, echolocation, musical instruments, ambulance sounds
• Perform an experiment investigating the properties of sound waves and analyze
the data appropriately—identifying deviations from theoretical expectations
when appropriate
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
• Periodic motion is a motion that regularly returns to a given
position after a fixed time interval.
• A particular type of periodic motion is “simple harmonic motion,”
which arises when the force acting on an object is proportional
to the position of the object about some equilibrium position.
• The motion of an object
connected to a spring is a
good example.
DEFINITION OF TERMS

• Displacement – the distance x of the mass from the equilibrium

at any moment
• Amplitude - It refers to the maximum amount of displacement of
a particle on the medium from its rest position.
• Cycle –refers to the complete to and fro motion from some
initial point back to that the same point
DEFINITION OF TERMS

• Period – the time required for one complete cycle (T = 1/f)

• Frequency – the number of complete cycles per second
(f = 1/T)
SI unit of frequency is Hz (1 Hz = 1/s)
RECALL HOOKE’S LAW

• Hooke’s Law states Fs = -kx

• Fs is the restoring force.
• It is always directed toward the equilibrium position.
• Therefore, it is always opposite the displacement from
equilibrium.
• k is the force (spring) constant.
• x is the displacement.
Car springs. When a family of four people with a total mass of 200 kg
step into their 1200-kg car, the car’s springs compress 3.0 cm. (a) What
is the spring constant of the car’s springs, assuming that they act as a
single spring? (b) How far will the car lower if loaded with 300 kg?
W = mg = (200 kg)(9.8 m/𝑠 2 ) = 1960 N
3. 0 cm = 3.0 x 10−2 m
k = F/x = (1960 N)/(3.0 x 10−2 m) = 6.5 x 104 N/m
If the car is loaded with 300 kg
x = F/k = {(300 kg)(9.8 m/𝑠 2 )}/(6.5 x 104 N/m) = 4.5 x 10−2 m = 4.5 cm
ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
• Elastic potential energy, PE = 1/2k𝑥 2
• Total ME of a mass-spring system, E = 1/2m𝑣 2 + 1/2k𝑥 2
• The total mechanical energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is proportional to the square
of its amplitude
• When v = 0, E = 1/2k𝐴2
• When x = 0, E = 1/2m𝑣𝑜 2
• At intermediate points, 1/2m𝑣 2 + 1/2k𝑥 2 = 1/2k𝐴2
• 𝑣 2 = (k/m)(𝐴2 )(1 – (𝑥 2 /𝐴2 )
• but 1/2k𝐴2 = 1/2m𝑣𝑜 2
2
• Therefore 𝑣 = ±𝑣𝑜 1 − 𝑥𝐴2
Spring calculations. A spring stretches 0.150 m when a 0.300-kg
mass is hung from it. The spring is then stretched to an additional
0.100 from this equilibrium point, and released. Determine (a) the
spring constant k (b)the amplitude of the oscillation A (c) the
maximum velocity vo (d) the magnitude of the velocity v, when
the mass is 0.050 m from the equilibrium, and (e) the magnitude
of the maximum acceleration
THE PERIOD OF THE SINUSOIDAL NATURE OF SHM

1 𝑚
• T = = 2𝜋
𝑓 𝑘

• 𝑓 = 𝑇1 = 2𝜋
1 𝑘
𝑚
• What are the period and frequency of the car (weighing 1200
kg and with passengers of total mass of 200 kg) after hitting a
bump? (k = 6.5𝑥104 𝑁/𝑚)
• A small insect of mass 0.30 g is caught in a spider web of
negligible mass. The web vibrates predominantly with a
frequency of 15 Hz (a)Estimate the value of the spring constant
k for the web (b) At what frequency would you expect the web
to vibrate if an insect of mass 0.10 g were trapped?
A SIMPLE PENDULUM

•A string with a mass at the

end which is free to swing is
called a pendulum.
TO AND FRO MOTION

• The ball moves to and

fro. It rises to extreme
positions on both sides
and reverses its motion
• Oscillations gradually
die down
LENGTH OF THE PENDULUM

• The length of the

string from the point of
suspension to the
mass is called the
length of the
pendulum.

• It is denoted by L
MEAN POSITION OF THE PENDULUM

• The central position of

the pendulum (the
starting position) is called
the mean position of the
pendulum.
• It is labeled here as B.
EXTREME POSITIONS OF THE PENDULUM

• A and C are the extreme positions of the pendulum.

OSCILLATION

• The motion of the mass

from its extreme position A
to C and back to A is
called an oscillation.
TIME TAKEN FOR ONE OSCILLATION

• The time taken for one oscillation is very short and therefore,
difficult to measure accurately.
• To find the time taken, we find the time taken for large number
say 20 oscillations. This time divided by 20 will give us time taken
for one oscillation.
PERIODIC TIME OF THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

• The time taken to complete one oscillation is called the periodic

time of the simple pendulum.

• It is sometimes also called its period and is denoted by T.

 𝜃 ≤ 10°
• The period of a simple pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of its
length.
• The period is inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration due to
gravity
• The period is independent of the mass of the bob, and of angular amplitude, if
small

𝐿
• 𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑔

• T – period
• L – length
• g – acceleration due to gravity
1. A simple pendulum has a period of 3. 0 second here on Earth.
(a) What is its length?
(b) What will be its period when taken to the moon where the
acceleration due to gravity is 1/6 that of the Earth?
2. (a)Estimate the length of the pendulum in a grandfather’s
clock that tick once per second. (b) What is the period of a clock
with a 1.0 m-long pendulum?
DAMPED HARMONIC MOTION

• The amplitude of any real oscillating spring or swinging

pendulum slowly decreases in time until the oscillation stops
altogether.
• Overdamped – takes a long time to reach equilibrium
• Underdamped – makes several swings before coming to rest
• Critically damped – equilibrium is reached the quickest
RESONANCE

• What is Resonance?
• Many objects have a natural frequency – vibrates in a regular
pattern.

• Resonance occurs when whenever a sound wave has the same

frequency as the natural frequency of an object. The sound will
cause the object with the same natural frequency to vibrate.
THE NATURE OF WAVES
• What is a wave?
• A wave is a repeating disturbance or
movement that transfers energy
through matter or space
Waves transfer energy not matter. The water waves
below are carrying energy but are not moving.
Waves can only exist as they have energy to carry.
What are mechanical waves?
Mechanical waves are waves which require a medium. A
medium is a form of matter through which the wave travels
(such as water, air, glass, etc.) Waves such as light, x-rays,
and other forms of radiation do not require a medium.

What are the two kinds of mechanical waves?

Transverse Waves

In a transverse wave the matter in the wave

moves up and down at a right angle to the
direction of the wave
What are mechanical waves?
Mechanical waves are waves which require a medium. A
medium is a form of matter through which the wave travels
(such as water, air, glass, etc.) Waves such as light, x-rays,
and other forms of radiation do not require a medium.

What are the two kinds of mechanical waves?

Longitudinal Waves (Compression Waves)

In a longitudinal wave the matter in the wave

moves back and forth parallel to the direction of
the wave
Example of a transverse wave:
Sound Waves are compressional/longitudinal waves.
Sound travels as vibrations moving through the air
as a compressional wave.
Sound travels through air, but travels through other
materials as well. Whale communicate through
long distances by producing sounds under water.

What are Seismic Waves?

An energy wave which vibrates through the earth’s
crust as the crust bends or breaks. Seismic waves
are exist as both transverse and compressional
waves. Some travel through the earth and some
travel across the earth’s surface.
Anatomy of a Seismic Wave
What are the parts of a wave?
Transverse wave The crest is the highest
point on a transverse wave.
The trough is the lowest
point on a transverse wave.
The rest position of the
wave is called the node or
nodal line.
The wavelength is the
distance from one point on
the wave to the next
corresponding adjacent
point.
Compressional
On a compressional
Longitudinal wave the area
wave squeezed together is
called the compression.
The areas spread out
are called the
rarefaction.
The wavelength is the
distance from the
center of one
compression to the
center of the next
What is wavelength?
Wavelength is a measure of distance, so the units
for wavelength are always distance units, such as
meter, centimeters, millimeters, etc.

What is wave frequency?

Frequency is the number of waves that pass
through a point in one second. The unit for
frequency is waves per second or Hertz (Hz). One Hz
= One wave per second.
Wavelength and frequency are inversely related.
The smaller the wavelength, the more times it will
pass through a point in one second. The larger the
wavelength, the fewer times it will pass through a
Frequency is the number of waves
(vibrations) that pass through a point in
one second.
Period is the time it takes for one full
wavelength to pass a certain point.
Frequency is waves per second.
Period is seconds per wave.
1 1
frequency  f
period T
A wave moving through a medium travels at a
certain speed. This is Wave Speed.
Wave speed is usually measured in meters/second,
but may be measured using other distance units
(such as centimeters per second).
How is Wave Speed calculated?
Wave speed is calculated as the product of a
waves frequency and wavelength.
Wavelength is represented by the Greek letter
lambda (λ) and frequency is represented by (f)
What is the amplitude of a wave?
The amplitude of a wave is directly related to
the energy of a wave.
The amplitude of a compressional wave is
determined by the closeness of the
compressional waves. The closer the
compressional waves and the farther the
rarefaction lines.
The amplitude of a transverse wave is determined
by the height of the crest or depth of the trough
The Behavior of Waves
What is reflection?
When a wave bounces off an object and changes
direction – this is reflection.
What is refraction?
Refraction is the bending of
a wave as it passes from one
medium to another. A wave
travels at different speeds in
different things. When a
wave traveling a certain
speed moves into another
medium, it will either
increase in speed or
decrease in speed, resulting
in a change in direction.
What is diffraction?
Diffraction occurs when an object causes a
wave to change direction and bend around
it.
Diffraction also occurs when passing through
a small opening. They diffract and spread
out as they pass through the hole.
What is wave interference?
Waves interfere in one of two ways: Constructive
Interference and Destructive Interference.
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

• Let’s consider two waves moving towards each other, both

having a positive upward amplitude.
• What will happen when they meet?

48
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
• They will ADD together to produce a greater
amplitude.
• This is known as CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE.

49
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

• Now let’s consider the opposite, two waves moving towards

each other, one having a positive (upward) and one a
negative (downward) amplitude.
• What will happen when they meet?

50
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
• This time when they add together they will
produce a smaller amplitude.
• This is know as DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE.

51
What is sound?
 a physical sensation that stimulates the ear
 a longitudinal wave which travels through the air through a
series of compressions and rarefactions.
ASPECTS OF SOUND

• There must be a source for a sound (vibrating object)

• The energy is transferred in the form of longitudinal waves
• The sound is detected by an ear or an instrument
HOW SOUND IS CREATED
• The human voice is a complex
sound that starts in the larynx, a
small structure at the top of your
windpipe.
• The sound that starts in the larynx is
changed by passing through
openings in the throat and mouth.
• Different sounds are made by
changing both the vibrations in
the larynx and the shape of the
openings.
THESound
PRODUCTION OF
waves are longitudinal
SOUND WAVES
• The vibrations of air molecules are
parallel to the direction of wave
motion.
• Crests of a pressure wave
correspond to compressions in the
sound wave.
• Troughs of a pressure wave
correspond to rarefactions in the
sound wave.
A pressure wave represents changes in air
pressure due to the propagation of the
sound waves.
THE PRODUCTION OF SOUND WAVES
Compression and Rarefaction
• compression : the region of longitudinal wave in
which the density and pressure are greater than
normal
• rarefaction : the region of a longitudinal wave in
which the density and pressure are less than normal
SOUND WAVES AND BOUNDARIES
• Like other waves, sound
waves can be reflected
by surfaces and
refracted as they pass
from one material to
another.
• Sound waves reflect from
hard surfaces.
• Soft materials can absorb
sound waves.
REFLECTION AND REFRACTIONS
OF SOUND WAVES
• Echo
• Reflection of sound off a surface (Acoustics (Greek
akouein,”to hear”).
• Reverb (Electronic echo)
What is sonar?
Sonar is a system that uses the reflection of underwater sound
waves to detect objects. This has been used to find sunken
ships and schools of fish.
SOUND MEDIUMS
• A medium is a material that sound, a form of energy, need
to transfer
Speed of Sound in Various Materials at Speed of sound
20°C and 1 atm
𝛽
Materials Speed (m/s) v= 𝜌
Air 343
Air at 0°C 331 𝛽 – elastic modulus
Helium 1005 𝜌 - density
Hydrogen 1300
Water 1440
Seawater 1560
Iron and Steel ≈ 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 Speed of sound in air
v = (331 + 0.6T)m/s
Glass ≈ 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟎
Aluminum ≈ 𝟓𝟏𝟎𝟎
Hardwood ≈ 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
Sound travels through different media.
We hear sound which usually travels through air. Sound
travels through other media as well, such as water and various
solids.
Sound travels different speeds in different media. Sound
typically travels faster in a solid that a liquid and faster in a
liquid than a gas.
The denser the medium, the faster sound will travel.
The higher the temperature, the faster the particles of the
medium will move and the faster the particles will carry the
sound.
SOUND WAVES
• Each Sound wave
has unique pattern
• Frequency
• Wavelength
• Amplitude
SOUND WAVES

Molecules in the air vibrate about some average position

creating the compressions and rarefactions. We call the
frequency of sound the pitch.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES

Frequency determines pitch

• pitch : the perceived highness or lowness of a sound,
depending on the frequency of the sound waves
• Pitch follows frequency changes; as the frequency of a sound
wave increases, the pitch rises.
• Pitch refers to how different frequencies are perceived by the
human ear.
What is sound intensity?
Sound intensity is the energy that the sound wave
possesses. The greater the intensity of sound the
farther the sound will travel and the louder the sound
will appear.
Loudness is very closely related to intensity.
Loudness is the human perception of the sound
intensity. The unit for loudness is decibels.
How is frequency related to pitch?
The pitch of a sound wave is directly related to
frequency. A high-pitched sound has a high frequency
(a screaming girl). A low-pitched sound has a low
frequency (a fog-horn).
Audible sound waves, those the average human ear can
hear, have frequencies between 20 and 20,000 Hz
(cycles per second).
Humans cannot hear below 20 Hz. Sounds below this
frequency are termed infrasonic.
Sounds above 20,000 Hz are termed ultrasonic. Some
animals, such as dogs, can hear frequencies in this
Loudness in Decibels
AMPLITUDE OF SOUND
• Volume control
• Loudness
• Strength of the wave ( measured in db “decibels”)
• Energy of the wave
The human ear can detect sounds with an intensity as low as 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2 and as high as
1 𝑊/𝑚2
Intensity level (decibels)
𝐼
𝛽 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐼𝑜

Airplane roar. The intensity level of the sound from a jet plane at a distance of 30 m is 140 dB. What is the
intensity level at 300 m?
Intensity I at 30 m
𝐼
140 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log 𝑊
10−12 2
𝑚

𝐼
1014 = 𝑊
10−12 2
𝑚

𝑊 𝑊
𝐼 = (1014 )𝑥(10−12 ) = 102
𝑚2 𝑚2

At 300 m
𝐼 30 𝑚
= 𝑊 = 1 𝑊/𝑚2
300 𝑚 102 2
𝑚

1 𝑊/𝑚2
𝛽 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑊 = 120 𝑑𝐵
10−12 2
𝑚 𝑜
SENSITIVITY OF THE EAR
• How we hear the loudness of
sound is affected by the
frequency of the sound as
well as by the amplitude.
• The human ear is most
sensitive to sounds between
300 and 3,000 Hz.
• The ear is less sensitive to
sounds outside this range.
• Most of the frequencies that
make up speech are
between 300 and 3,000 Hz.
SOUND, PERCEPTION, AND MUSIC
• A single frequency by itself does not have much meaning.
• The meaning comes from patterns in many frequencies
together.

 A sonogram is a special
kind of graph that shows
how loud sound is at
different frequencies.
 Every person’s sonogram is
different, even when saying
the same word.
B. HUMAN HEARING

The ear is an organ

of hearing.
Three major parts:
1. Outer
2. Middle
3. Inner
HOW WE HEAR..
• Outer ear is shaped like a funnel and is called
pinna or auricle. The pinna receives sound waves
that travel to the auditory canal or ear canal.
• The auditory canal acts like a tunnel with an
approximate length of 2.5 cm and leads to the
eardrum. The ear canal also protects the
eardrum from shock and intrusion by external
objects.
HOW WE HEAR..
• The middle ear is an air filled space containing
the eardrum or the tympanic membrane, the
Eustachian tube and the bridge of ossicles.
• The eardrum is a cone shaped piece of skin
about 10 mm wide. It is very sensitive. Even the
slightest variation will cause it to vibrate. It
separates the middle ear from the outer ear
HOW WE HEAR..
• The ossicles are the smallest bone in our body.
These bones are named according to their
shapes: the malleus (or hammer), incus (or anvil),
and stapes (or stirrup). It is arranged in the
following sequence: malleus, incus, and stapes.
The malleus is connected to the eardrum. The
stapes are attached to the oval window
HOW WE HEAR..
• The inner ear contains a coiled fluid-filled tube
called the cochlea. Suspended at the middle of
the cochlea is the basilar membrane. Attached
to the basilar membrane are thousands of hair
cells attached to the end organ of the auditory
nerve called organ of Corti
• The vestibule and semicircular canal are not directly involved in
the hearing process but are involved in maintaining balance.
HEARING SOUND
• The eardrum vibrates in
response to sound
waves in the ear canal.
• The three delicate
bones of the inner ear
transmit the vibration of
the eardrum to the side
of the cochlea.
• The fluid in the spiral of
the cochlea vibrates
and creates waves that
travel up the spiral.
SOUND

• The nerves near the

beginning see a
relatively large channel
and respond to longer
wavelength, low
frequency sound.

 The nerves at the small end of the channel respond to

shorter wavelength, higher-frequency sound.
 CONSONANCE, DISSONANCE, AND
BEATS
• Harmony is the study of how sounds work together to create
effects desired by the composer.
• When we hear more than one frequency of sound and the
combination sounds good, we call it consonance.
• When the combination sounds bad or unsettling, we call it
dissonance.
 CONSONANCE, DISSONANCE, AND
BEATS
• Consonance and dissonance are related to beats.
• When frequencies are far enough apart that there are no
beats, we get consonance.
• When frequencies are too close together, we hear beats that
are the cause of dissonance.
• Beats occur when two frequencies are close, but not exactly
the same.
SOUND WAVE INTERFERENCE

•Interference occurs when two sounds of difference frequency

are heard superposed.
•Constructive interference causes louder sound and destructive
inference cause fainter sound.
•This alternating pattern produces a beat.
A piano tuners listens for beats to disappear.
BEATS
• When two waves of slightly different frequencies
interfere, the interference pattern varies in such a
way that a listener hears an alternation between
loudness and softness.
• The variation from soft to loud and back to soft is
called a beat.
BEATS

• The number of beats per second corresponds to

the difference between frequencies
LOUDSPEAKERS’ INTERFERENCE. The two loudspeakers are 1.00 m
apart. A person stands 4.00 m from one speaker. How far must this
person be from the second speaker in order to detect destructive
interference when the speakers emit an 1150-Hz sound? Assume
the temperature is 20ºC
λ = v/f = 343 m/s / 1150 Hz = 0.30 m
• A tuning fork produces a steady 400-Hz tone. When the tuning
fork is stuck and held near a vibrating guitar string, twenty beats
are counted in five seconds. What are the possible frequencies
produced by the guitar string?

• Frequency of beat = 20 vibrations/5 s = 4 Hz

• 4 Hz –the difference of the frequencies of two waves
• Answer is 404 Hz or 396 Hz
SHOCK WAVES
Produced by supersonic
aircraft, three-dimensional
cone shaped
Sonic boom – sharp crack
heard when conical shell of
compressed air that sweeps
behind a supersonic aircraft
reaches listeners on the
ground below.
SUPERSONIC
SUBSONIC - slower than the speed of sound

• Supersonic - faster than the speed of sound

speed of object
Mach Number =
speed of sound
STANDING WAVES
Occurs when a wave reflects upon itself and
interference causes the pattern
Nodes remain stationary
Anti nodes-occur half way between nodes
STANDING WAVES
Change the frequency in a standing wave and more
nodes/antinodes appear in the event
VIBRATING STRINGS

• Fundamental frequency – corresponds to one antinode or loop

f = v/2L
Harmonic frequencies
𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛
2𝐿
• Overtones – integral multiples of fundamental frequency and are also called harmonics
• 1st harmonic = fundamental frequency
• 2nd harmonic = 1st overtone
• 3rd harmonic = 2nd overtone
VIBRATING AIR COLUMNS

Fundamental frequency of an open tube is the same with the vibrating strings
f = v/2L
For close tube the fundamental frequency is f = v/4L
The first overtone is three times higher than the fundamental which is equal to the third harmonics
𝑣
𝑓3 = 3
4𝐿
• For a closed tube only odd harmonics are possible
• 1st harmonic = fundamental frequency
• 3rd harmonic = 1st overtone
• 5th harmonic = 2nd overtone
DOPPLER EFFECT
• The frequency of the perceived
wave is changed by the motion of
the source
• Increasing Frequency when the
source approaches the sensor
• Decreasing Frequency when the
source increases the distance
from the sensor
THE DOPPLER EFFECT
Relative motion creates a change in frequency
• Doppler effect : a frequency shift that is
the
result of relative motion between the source of
waves and an observer.
The
The frequency
frequency
heard by the
heard by the
observer is
observer is
greater than the
less than the
source
source
frequency.
frequency.
 THE DOPPLER EFFECT-
Change in frequency due to the source or
receiver greater the speed the source, greater
the Doppler effect
Stationary bug

Bug swimming
DOPPLER EFFECT

f – true frequency
f’ – apparent frequency
v – velocity of the sound in medium (usually air)
Vs – velocity of the source of sound
Vo – velocity of the observer
λ – true wavelength
λ’ – apparent wavelength
OBSERVER IN MOTION; SOURCE AT REST