Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Seventh Edition

Chapter 9
The Endocrine System

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 The Endocrine System
 Second messenger system of the body
 Uses chemical messages (hormones)
that are released into the blood
 Hormones control several major
processes
 Reproduction
 Growth and development
 Mobilization of body defenses
 Maintenance of much of homeostasis
 Regulation of metabolism
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 Hormone Overview

 Hormones are produced by specialized

cells
 Cells secrete hormones into
extracellular fluids
 Blood transfers hormones to target sites
 These hormones regulate the activity of
other cells

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 The Chemistry of Hormones

 Amino acid-based hormones

 Proteins
 Peptides
 Amines
 Steroids – made from cholesterol
 Prostaglandins – made from highly
active lipids
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 Mechanisms of Hormone Action

 Hormones affect only certain tissues or

organs (target cells or organs)
 Target cells must have specific protein
receptors
 Hormone binding influences the working
of the cells

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 Control of Hormone Release

 Hormone levels in the blood are

maintained by negative feedback
 A stimulus or low hormone levels in the
blood triggers the release of more
hormone
 Hormone release stops once an
appropriate level in the blood is reached

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 Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine
Glands

 Endocrine glands
are activated by
other hormones

Figure 9.2a

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 Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine
Glands

 Changing blood
levels of certain
ions stimulate
hormone release

Figure 9.2b

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 Location of Major Endrocrine Organs

Figure 9.3

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 Pituitary Gland

 Size of a grape
 Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
 Protected by the sphenoid bone
 Has two functional lobes
 Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue
 Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue

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 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 Six anterior pituitary hormones
 Two affect non-endocrine targets
 Four stimulate other endocrine glands
(tropic hormones)
 Characteristics of all anterior pituitary
hormones
 Proteins (or peptides)
 Act through second-messenger systems
 Regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly
negative feedback
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 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

Figure 9.4

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 Growth Hormone (GH)

 General metabolic hormone

 Major effects are directed to growth of
skeletal muscles and long bones
 Causes amino acids to be built into
proteins
 Causes fats to be broken down for a
source of energy

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 9.18
 Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary
Hormones
 Prolactin (PRL)
 Stimulates and maintains milk production
following childbirth
 Function in males is unknown
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
 Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal
cortex
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
 Influences growth and activity of the thyroid
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 9.19
 Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary
Hormones

 Gonadotropic hormones
 Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
 Stimulates follicle development in
ovaries
 Stimulates sperm development in
testes
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 Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary
Hormones
 Gonadotropic hormones (continued)
 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Triggers ovulation
 Causes ruptured follicle to become the
corpus luteum
 Stimulates testosterone production in
males
 Referred to as interstitial cell-stimulating
hormone (ICSH)
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 9.20b
 Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
 Oxytocin
 Stimulates contractions of the uterus during
labor
 Causes milk ejection
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
 Can inhibit urine production
 In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction
leading to increased blood pressure
(vasopressin)
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 Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

Figure 9.5

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 Thyroid Gland

 Found at the base of the throat

 Consists of two lobes and a connecting
isthmus
 Produces two hormones
 Thyroid hormone
 Calcitonin

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 Thyroid Gland

Figure 9.6

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 Thyroid Hormone

 Major metabolic hormone

 Composed of two active iodine-
containing hormones
 Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid
follicles
 Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of T4 at
target tissues

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 Calcitonin
 Decreases blood
calcium levels by
causing its
deposition on bone
 Antagonistic to
parathyroid
hormone
 Produced by C
(parafollicular)
cells
Figure 9.9
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 Parathyroid Glands

 Tiny masses on the posterior of the

thyroid
 Secrete parathyroid hormone
 Stimulate osterclasts to remove calcium
from bone
 Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to
absorb more calcium
 Raise calcium levels in the blood
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 Adrenal Glands

 Two glands
 Cortex – outer glandular region in three
layers
 Medulla – inner neural tissue region
 Sits on top of the kidneys

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 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
 Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
 Produced in outer adrenal cortex
 Regulate mineral content in blood, water,
and electrolyte balance
 Target organ is the kidney
 Production stimulated by renin and
aldosterone
 Production inhibited by atrial natriuretic
peptide
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 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

Figure 9.10

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 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

 Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and

cortisol)
 Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal
cortex
 Promote normal cell metabolism
 Help resist long-term stressors
 Released in response to increased blood
levels of ACTH
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 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

 Sex hormones
 Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal
cortex
 Androgens (male) and some estrogen
(female)

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 Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

 Produces two similar hormones

(catecholamines)
 Epinephrine
 Norepinephrine
 These hormones prepare the body to
deal with short-term stress

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 Pancreatic Islets
 The pancreas is a mixed gland
 The islets of the pancreas produce
hormones
 Insulin – allows glucose to cross plasma
membranes into cells from beta cells
 Glucagon – allows glucose to enter the
blood from alpha cells
 These hormones are antagonists that
maintain blood sugar homeostasis
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 Pancreatic Islets

Figure 9.13

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 Pancreatic Hormones and Blood Sugar

Figure 9.14

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 Pineal Gland

 Found on the third ventricle of the brain

 Secretes melatonin
 Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep
cycles
 May have other as-yet-unsubstantiated
functions

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 Thymus

 Located posterior to the sternum

 Largest in infants and children
 Produces thymosin
 Matures some types of white blood cells
 Important in developing the immune system

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 Hormones of the Ovaries
 Estrogens
 Produced by Graafian follicles or the placenta
 Stimulates the development of secondary
female characteristics
 Matures female reproductive organs
 Helps prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized
egg
 Helps maintain pregnancy
 Prepares the breasts to produce milk

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 Hormones of the Ovaries

 Progesterone
 Produced by the corpus luteum
 Acts with estrogen to bring about the
menstrual cycle
 Helps in the implantation of an embryo in
the uterus

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 Hormones of the Testes
 Interstitial cells of testes are hormone-
producing
 Produce several androgens
 Testosterone is the most important
androgen
 Responsible for adult male secondary sex
characteristics
 Promotes growth and maturation of male
reproductive system
 Required for sperm cell production
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 Other Hormone-Producing Tissues
and Organs

 Parts of the small intestine

 Parts of the stomach
 Kidneys
 Heart
 Many other areas have scattered
endocrine cells

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 Endocrine Function of the Placenta

 Produces hormones that maintain the

pregnancy
 Some hormones play a part in the
delivery of the baby
 Produces HCG in addition to estrogen,
progesterone, and other hormones

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 Developmental Aspects of the
Endocrine System
 Most endocrine organs operate smoothly
until old age
 Menopause is brought about by lack of
efficiency of the ovaries
 Problems associated with reduced estrogen
are common
 Growth hormone production declines with age
 Many endocrine glands decrease output with
age
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