Computer Networks with

Internet Technology
William Stallings

Chapter 09
Integrated and
Differentiated Services

1
Introduction
• New additions to Internet increasing traffic
— High volume client/server application
— Web
• Graphics
— Real time voice and video
• Need to manage traffic and control congestion
• IEFT standards
— Integrated services (IntServ)
• Collective service to set of traffic demands in domain
– Limit demand & reserve resources
— Differentiated services (DiffServ)
• Classify traffic in groups
• Different group traffic handled differently
Integrated Services
Architecture (ISA)
• IPv4 header fields for precedence and type of
service usually ignored
• Need to support Quality of Service (QoS) within
TCP/IP
—Add functionality to routers
—Means of requesting QoS
Internet Traffic – Elastic
• Can adjust to changes in delay and throughput
• E.g. common TCP and UDP application
— E-Mail – insensitive to delay changes
— FTP – User expect delay proportional to file size
• Sensitive to changes in throughput
— SNMP – delay not a problem, except when caused by congestion
— Web (HTTP), TELNET – sensitive to delay
• Not per packet delay – total elapsed time
— E.g. web page loading time
— For small items, delay across internet dominates
— For large items it is throughput over connection
• Need some QoS control to match to demand
Internet Traffic – Inelastic
• Does not easily adapt to changes in delay and
throughput
—Real time traffic
• Requirements:
—Throughput
• Minimum may be required
—Delay
– E.g. stock trading
—Jitter - Delay variation
• More jitter requires a bigger buffer
• E.g. teleconferencing requires reasonable upper bound
—Packet loss
Inelastic Traffic Problems
• Difficult to meet requirements on network with
variable queuing delays and congestion
• Need preferential treatment
• Applications need to state requirements
—Ahead of time (preferably) or on the fly
—Using fields in IP header
—Resource reservation protocol
• Must still support elastic traffic
—Deny service requests that leave too few resources to
handle elastic traffic demands
ISA Approach
• Provision of QoS over IP
• Sharing available capacity when congested
• Router mechanisms
—Routing Algorithms
• Select to minimize delay
—Packet discard
• Causes TCP sender to back off and reduce load
Flow
• IP packet can be associated with a flow
—RFC 1633 defines a flow as a distinguishable stream
of related IP packets that results from a single user
activity and requires same QoS.
—E.g. one transport connection or one video stream
—Unidirectional
—Can be more than one recipient
• Multicast
—Membership of flow identified by source and
destination IP address, port numbers, protocol type
—IPv6 header flow identifier can be used but is not
necessarily equivalent to ISA flow
ISA Functions
• Admission control
—For QoS, reservation required for new flow
—RSVP used
• Routing algorithm
—Routing decision based on QoS parameters
• Queuing discipline
—Take account of different flow requirements
• Discard policy
—The choice and timing of packet discards
—Manage congestion and meet QoS
Figure 9.1 ISA Implemented in
Router

Background

Forwarding
http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/rsvp.pdf
ISA Components – Background
Functions
• Reservation Protocol
—RSVP (Resource ReSerVation Protocol)
• Admission control
• Management agent
—Can use agent to modify traffic control database and
direct admission control
• Routing protocol
—Maintaining a routing database
ISA Components – Forwarding
• Classifier and route selection
— Incoming packets mapped to classes
• Single flow or set of flows with same QoS
– E.g. all video flows
• Based on IP header fields
— Determines next hop
• Packet scheduler
— Manages one or more queues for each output
— Order queued packets sent
• Based on class, traffic control database, current and past activity
on outgoing port
— Policing
• Determine whether the packet traffic in a flow exceeds the
requested capacity.
• Decide how to treat the excess packets.
ISA Services
• ISA service for a flow is defined on two
levels.
—General categories of service
• Guaranteed
• Controlled load  Rspec
• Best effort (default)
—The service for a particular is specified by
values of certain parameters.  Tspec
Token Bucket Traffic Specification
• A way of characterizing traffic
• Three advantages:
—Many traffic sources can be defined by token bucket
scheme
—Provides concise description of load imposed by flow.
Easy to determine resource requirements
—Provides input parameters to policing function
• Consists of two parameters
— R: token replenishment rate
— B: bucket size
 During any time period T, the amount of data sent cannot
exceed RT + B
Figure 9.2 Token Bucket
Scheme
ISA Services –
Guaranteed Service
• Key elements of guaranteed service
—Assured capacity level or data rate
—Specific upper bound on queuing delay through
network
• Must be added to propagation delay to get total delay
—No queuing losses
• I.e. no packets are lost due to buffer overflow
• E.g. Real time play back of incoming signal can
use delay buffer for incoming signal but will not
tolerate packet loss
ISA Services –
Controlled Load
• Key elements of controlled load service
—Tightly approximates to best efforts under unloaded
conditions
—No upper bound on queuing delay. High percentage
of packets do not experience delay over minimum
transit delay
—Very high percentage delivered. Almost no queuing
loss
• Useful for adaptive real time applications
—Receiver measures jitter and sets playback point
—Video can drop a frame or delay output slightly
—Voice can adjust silence periods
Differentiated Services (DS)
• ISA and RSVP complex to deploy
• May not scale well for large volumes of traffic
—Amount of control signals required
—Maintenance of state information at routers
• DS architecture (RFC 2475) is designed to
provide simple, easy to implement, low
overhead tool
—Support range of network services differentiated on
basis of performance
Characteristics of DS
• Use IPv4 header Type of Service or IPv6 Traffic Class
field
— No change to IP
• Service level agreement (SLA) established between
provider (internet domain) and customer prior to use.
— DS mechanisms not needed in applications
• Build-in aggregation
— All traffic with same DS field treated same
• E.g. multiple voice connections
• DS implemented in individual routers by queuing and
forwarding based on DS field
• State information on flows not saved by routers
 DS Terminology (1) Page 329
Behavior Aggregate A set of packets with the same DS codepoint crossing a link in a particular
direction.
Classifier Selects packets based on the DS field (BA classifier) or on multiple fields
within the packet header (MF classifier).

DS Boundary Node A DS node that connects one DS domain to a node in another domain

DS Codepoint A specified value of the 6-bit DSCP portion of the 8-bit DS field in the IP
header.
DS Domain A contiguous (connected) set of nodes, capable of implementing
differentiated services, that operate with a common set of service
provisioning policies and per-hop behavior definitions.

DS Interior Node A DS node that is not a DS boundary node.

DS Node A node that supports differentiated services. Typically, a DS node is a

router. A host system that provides differentiated services for applications
in the host is also a DS node.
Dropping The process of discarding packets based on specified rules; also called
policing.
 Table 9.1
DS Terminology (2)
Marking The process of setting the DS codepoint in a packet. Packets may be
marked on initiation and may be re-marked by an en route DS node.

Metering The process of measuring the temporal properties (e.g., rate) of a

packet stream selected by a classifier. The instantaneous state of
that process may affect marking, shaping, and dropping functions.

Per-Hop Behavior The externally observable forwarding behavior applied at a node to

(PHB) a behavior aggregate.

Service Level A service contract between a customer and a service provider that
Agreement (SLA) specifies the forwarding service a customer should receive.

Shaping The process of delaying packets within a packet stream to cause it

to conform to some defined traffic profile.

Traffic Conditioning Control functions performed to enforce rules specified in a TCA,

including metering, marking, shaping, and dropping.

Traffic Conditioning An agreement specifying classifying rules and traffic conditioning

Agreement (TCA) rules that are to apply to packets selected by the classifier.
Services
• Provided within DS domain
— Contiguous portion of Internet over which consistent set of DS
policies administered.
— Typically under control of one administrative entity
• Defined in SLA (Service Level Agreement)
— SLA: Service contract between customer and service provider
— Specify packet classes, marked in DS field
• Service provider configures forwarding policies at routers
— Must measure performance provided for each class
• DS domain is expected to provide agreed service.
• If destination in another domain, DS domain attempts to
forward packets through other domains, requesting
appropriate service to match the requested service.
SLA Parameters
• Detailed service performance parameters
—Throughput, drop probability, latency
• Constraints on ingress and egress points
—Indicate scope of service
• Traffic profiles to be adhered to
—Token bucket
• Disposition of traffic in excess of profile
Example Services
• Qualitative
—Service Level A: Low latency
—Service Level B: Low loss
• Quantitative
—C: 90% in-profile traffic delivered with no more than
50 ms latency
—D: 95% in-profile traffic delivered
• Mixed
—E: Twice bandwidth of F
—F: Traffic with drop precedence X has higher delivery
probability than that with drop precedence Y
Figure 9.11
DS Field – DS Codepoint
DS/ECN
DS Field Detail
• Leftmost 6 bits are DS codepoint
—64 different classes available
—3 pools
• xxxxx0 : reserved for standards
– 000000 : default packet class
– xxx000 : reserved for backwards compatibility with IPv4 TOS
• xxxx11 : reserved for experimental or local use
• xxxx01 : reserved for experimental or local use but may be
allocated for future standards if needed
• Rightmost 2 bits unused
Precedence Field xxx000
• Indicates degree of urgency or priority
• If router supports precedence, three approaches:
• Route selection
— Particular route may be selected if smaller queue or next hop on
supports network precedence or priority
— e.g. token ring supports priority
• Network service
— Network on next hop supports precedence, service is invoked
• Queuing discipline
— Use precedence to affect how queues handled
— E.g. preferential treatment in queues to datagrams with higher
precedence
Type of Service
Router Queuing Disciplines –
1. Queue Service
• RFC 1812
• Queue service
a. SHOULD implement precedence-ordered queue
service (strict ordering)
a. Highest precedence packet queued for link is sent
b. MAY implement policy-based throughput management
procedures other than strict ordering
• MUST be configurable to suppress them
Router Queuing Disciplines –
2. Congestion Control
Router receives packet beyond storage capacity
— Discard it or other packet(s)
a. MAY discard packet just received
— Simplest but not best policy
b. Should select packet from session most heavily abusing link, given that
QoS permits this.
— FIFO queues: discard packet randomly selected
— Fair queues: discard from longest queue
c. If precedence-ordered implemented and enabled
— MUST NOT discard packet with precedence higher than packet not
discarded
d. MAY protect packets that request maximize reliability TOS
e. MAY protect fragmented IP packets
f. MAY protect packets used for control or management
DS Configuration and Operation
Configuration – Interior Routers
• Domain consists of set of contiguous routers
• Interpretation of DS codepoints within domain is
consistent
• Interior nodes (routers) have simple mechanisms to
handle packets based on codepoints
—Queuing discipline
• Gives preferential treatment depending on codepoint, i.e.
Per Hop behaviour (PHB) in DS specification.
• PHB must be available to all routers
• Typically the only part implemented in interior routers
—Packet dropping rule
• Dictate which to drop when buffer saturated
Configuration – Boundary
Routers
• Include PHB and traffic conditioning
• Five elements of traffic conditioning function:
— Classifier (BA or MF)
• Behavior aggregate classifier (DS codepoint), Multi-field classifier
• Separate packets into different classes
— Meter
• Measure traffic for conformance to profile (within or exceed)
— Marker
• Policing by remarking codepoints if required
• E.g. Remark packets that exceed the profile
— Shaper
• Delay packets so that packet stream does not exceed traffic rate
specified in the profile
— Dropper
• Drop packets when packet rate exceeds the profile
DS Functions (Fig. 9.13, page 334)
Per-Hop Behavior
1. Expedited Forwarding (EF) RFC 3246

• EF PHB is to provide premium service

—Low loss, delay, jitter; assured bandwidth end-to-end
service through domains
—Looks like point to point or leased line
—Difficult to achieve
—Configure nodes so traffic aggregate has well defined
minimum departure rate
• EF PHB
—Condition aggregate so arrival rate at any node is
always less that minimum departure rate
• Boundary conditioners

Expedited: 加速
Per Hop Behaviour –
Explicit Allocation
• Superior to best efforts
• Does not require reservation of resources
• Does not require detailed discrimination among flows
• Key elements of explicit allocation scheme:
— Users are offered choice of a number of classes
— User traffic is monitored at boundary node
• Marked in or out, depending on matching profile or not
— Inside network all traffic treated as single pool of packets,
distinguished only as in or out
— When congestion occurs, drop out packets before in packets if
necessary
— Different levels of service because different number of in
packets for each user
PHB –
2. Assured Forwarding (AF)
• Four classes defined
—A user may select one or more to meet requirements
• Within class, packets marked by customer or
provider with one of three drop precedence
values
—Used to determine relative importance when
dropping packets as result of congestion
Codepoints for AF PHB

Figure 9.11(b)