Day 1

1.What is phased array

2.How phased array works?
3.Beam forming
4.Beam focusing
5.Beam streeing
6.Sectorial Scan and linear Scan
What is Phased Array?
 Phased array technology is the ability to modify
electronically the acoustic probe characteristics

 Probe modifications are performed by introducing time

shifts in the signals sent to (pulse) and received from
(echo) individual elements of an array probe

 Any UT technique for flaw detection and sizing can be

applied using phased array probes
Why Phased Array?
 High speed electronic scanning without moving parts
 Improved inspection capabilities through software control
of beam characteristics
 Inspection with multiple angles with a single electronically
controlled probe
 Many configurations: P/E, T/R, TOFD, Tandem
 Greater flexibility for inspection of complex geometries
• Optimized focusing
• Optimized beam angle
 Phased Array Terminology
 Active Aperture  Focal Laws
 Apodisation  Linear Scan
 Aperture  Phased Array
 Azimuthal Scan  Sectorial Scan
 Beam forming  Steering Aperture
 Beam Steering  Passive Aperture
 Delay Laws  Virtual Probe
How Phased Arrays Work
 Probe Design Parameters
 Electronics (probe control and data collection
 Beam Forming
Design Parameters of Phased Array Probes

 A linear array (1D) is a

long conventional probe

 The probe is cut into

many small elements
that are individually
excited
Design Parameters of Phased Array Probes
A
e

p g
PROBE PARAMETERS
Frequency (f)
Total number of elements in array (n)
Total aperture in steering or active direction (A)
Height or Elevation, aperture in mechanical or passive direction (H)
Width of an individual element (e)
Pitch, center-to-center distance between two successive elements
(p)
Probe Manufacturing Composite Technology
Thin rods of ceramics

polymer
Piezzo composite

PA Probes are based on the Composite Technology.

Signal to noise ratio obtained from composite transducers is typically10-
30dB greater than obtained from piezo-ceramic probes.

Piezo-composite transducer is made by using thin rods of

ceramic material embedded into a polymer.
Probe Manufacturing Composite Technology
Elements
(thin layer of metal)

Piezzo composite

A metallic layer is deposited on the piezo-composite.

This metallic layer conforms to the element pattern and provides

electrical contacts for each element.
Probe Manufacturing: Casing
The probe construction is similar to that of a conventional probe

Acoustic matching

Piezo composite

Backing product

Cable up to 128 coaxial

wires
LINEAR 1D
Numerous linear probe designs
 The probe can mechanically be focused in the passive axis
 Phased Array and transducer technology allows for many shapes -
flat, curved, conical, elliptical, etc.

15L128E25.6-6 10L16E5-6 ¾’’

5L128E96-10C40

5L16E16-10
5L128E128-12F36
Design Parameters Of
Phased Array Probes
 Ultrasonic phased arrays consist of a series of
individual elements, each with its own connector, time
delay circuit and A/D converter

 Elements are acoustically insulated from each other

 Elements are pulsed in groups with pre-calculated time

delays for each element
- i.e. “phasing”
Phased Array Probes
 The elements are purchased as an “array” with known
geometry

 These arrays are manufactured using several designs -

each array is specifically built for the application, as
with conventional ultrasonic transducers

 Typical array designs are:

• Linear
• Matrix
• Circular
• Sectorial-annular
Phased Array Probes

15L128E25.6-6 10L16E5-6 ¾’’

5L128E96-10C40

5L16E16-10
5L128E128-12F36
Common Probe Geometries

1D Linear Array
Common Probe Geometries

1D Annular Array

2D Sectorial Annular
Array
Common Probe Geometries

Daisy Array
 Phased Array
Wave-forming Fundamentals
Conventional UT Probe Configuration
 With a conventional UT probe, a single piezoelectric
element converts an electrical signal into a mechanical
vibration.

Source: NDT Resource Center

(www.ndt-ed.org)
Phased Array Probe Configuration
 It is like having many small conventional UT
probes integrated inside a single probe.

128 elements !
Phased Array Wave-forming
Delay

Time
Focal law

Wave front
Element

 Beam steering using phased-array probe (Emission)

• Acoustic beam generated by Huyghens principle
• Appropriate delays introduced electronically during
emission to generate angle beam
 Phased Array Wave-forming

 Beam steering using phased-array probe (Reception)

• Appropriate delays introduced electronically during
reception
• Only signals satisfying delay law shall be in phase
and generate significant signal after summation
Phased Array Wave-forming

Global Overview of Phased Array Signal Processing

For economic reasons, pulsers are usually multiplexed.
Instrumentation nomenclature such as a ‘Focus’ 32/128 refers to an
instrument with 32 pulsers multiplexed into a total of 128 ultrasonic
channels.
Wave-forming
Focused Beam
Inclined Beam
Focal Law Generation

Delay Law

Material Velocity

Geometrical
Focal Point

Element Delay
Element Number Focal Law
Element Gain
Phased Array Scanning
Beam Focusing
 The capability to converge the acoustic
energy into a small focal spot

 Allows for focusing at several depths

using a single probe

 Symmetrical (e.g. parabolic) focal laws

(time delay vs. element position)
Beam Focusing
Unfocused Beam:

 Near-field and natural divergence of acoustic beam

are determined by total aperture A and wavelength

A2
 Near-field N
4
Divergence (half angle , at –6 dB ) 

sin   0.5 
A
Beam dimension (at depth z)

z
d
A
Beam Focusing
Focused Beam :
 Focusing coefficient (K) is defined as

where F : focal distance F

N : near-field K
N

 Beam dimension (dst) in steering plane

at focal distance is given by
F
d st   
A
Beam Focusing Theory
Linear Probe Pitch 1mm, Frequency 5 MHz
Number of elements 10 16 32

Aperture (mm) 10 16 32

N Fresnel distance (mm) 84 216 865

Focusing depth (mm) 84 84 84

K 0.99 0.39 0.10

d (at focusing depth mm) 2.49 1.55 0.78

In water using a velocity of 1.48 mm/sec
Beam Focusing Beam Profiles
Focusing 10 Focusing 16 Focusing 32
elements Aperture 10 elements Aperture elements Aperture
x 10mm 16 x 10mm 32 x 10mm
Dynamic Depth Focusing

PA imaging without PA imaging using DDF

DDF
Schematic Representation
of Dynamic Depth Focusing

Mechanical Displacement

FOCUS DEPTH (PULSER)

Beam displacement

DYNAMIC FOCUSING (RECEIVER)

c = velocity in material

DDF is an excellent way of inspecting thick

components in a single pulse. The beam is
refocused electronically on its return.
Beam Steering
 The capability to modify the refracted
angle of the beam generated by the array
probe

 Allows for multiple angle inspections,

using a single probe

 Applies symmetrical (e.g. linear) focal

laws
Illustration of Sectorial (Azimuthal) Scanning
Sectorial Scanning
 The ability to scan a complete sector of volume without any probe
movement
 Useful for inspection of complex geometries, or those with space
restrictions
 Combines the advantages of a wide beam and/or multiple focused
probes in a single phased array probe

N
2......
1
Beam Steering Capability
 Is related to the width of an individual element of
the array
 Maximum steering angle (at –6 dB), given by

sin  st  0.5 
e

 Steering range can be modified using an angled

wedge
Implications of Element Size on Beam-forming
Point A is OK because all
rays are within elemental A
B
beamwidth

Point B yields unexpected 

results because rays are
outside elemental beam
width e

Conclusion: The smaller sin  st  0.5 
e
the element size, the
better for steering
Electronic
Active Group
Scanning
 The ability to move the acoustic
beam along the axis of the array
without any mechanical movement
 The beam movement is performed
by time multiplexing of the active
group of elements
 Scanning extent limited by:
 number of elements in array
 number of channels in
acquisition system
Electronic Scanning
Combined Beam Processing

Electronic combined with steering and focusing

Weld Scanning

Conceptual animation showing weld inspection using

electronic scanning. Emulates typical ASME-type shear wave
inspection using line scan (much faster) rather than raster
scanning.
A typical weld inspection requires two or more angles with
defined raster size, step size, etc. (mechanical movement in
the scan direction)
There is a need to cover the weld, HAZ, any position
errors => significant amount of scanning
Tandem for Vertical Defects
Linear Probes – Electronic Scanning
Linear Probes – Sectorial Scanning
Continual or Wrapped Scanning

NORMAL BEAM ANGLE BEAM

 Summary of Scan Types

For electronic scans, arrays are multiplexed using the same focal law
For sectorial scans, the same elements are used, but the focal laws are
changed
For Dynamic Depth Focusing, only the receiver focal laws are
changed in hardware
Array Selection
 Frequency
 Element width (e)
 Number of elements (n)
 Pitch (p)
Element Frequency (f)
 Simple approach:
• If conventional UT uses, e.g. 10 MHz, use same
frequency for arrays
• If conventional UT uses 10 mm aperture, use
similar aperture with PA (e.g. 10 elements of 1 mm
width)
 Higher frequencies (and larger apertures) may
provide better signal/noise => tighter, optimized focal
spot
 Main manufacturing problems occur at high
frequencies (>15MHz) and small elements
Element Size (e)
 Element size (specifically ‘e’) is a key issue
As ‘e’ decreases:
• Beam steering capability increases
• The number of elements increases rapidly
• Manufacturing problems may arise
• Minimum element size ~0.15-0.20 mm
 Limiting factor often “budget”, not physics or
manufacturing
Number of Elements (n)
Number of elements is a compromise between:
 Desired physical coverage of the probe and sensitivity

 Focusing capability

 Steering capability

 Electronic system capability

 Cost
Example:
An array with a large working range AND large steering
capability requires a large amount of small elements.
Such an array may exceed the electronic capability
of the system, or the budget.
Power of the Elements
1 Element

2 Elements

4 Elements

8 Elements
Design Compromise
Sectorial scans:
different focal laws are applied to the same group of
elements
smaller elements needed to maximize steering capability
Typical sectorial scan would use a smaller number
(e.g. 16), with a small pitch (<1mm)

Linear scans:
same focal laws multiplexed through many elements
physical coverage important (raster extent)
Typical linear scan would use a greater number (e.g.
32+), with a larger pitch (>1mm)
Pitch / Aperture
 Number of active elements per focal law is typically 16
 Maximum aperture (A max) = Pitch (p) x 16
 For a high steering range, p must be small
 For a good sensitivity, a large Near Zone distance
provides good focusing coefficient, therefore A must be
large
 The challenge is to find the best compromise
In terms of ratio p / A
Element Positioning (p)
 Typical arrays use side-by-side elements with acoustic
insulation as gap

 Grating lobes generally minimized by selecting suitable

element width

 To reduce costs, use of a “sparse array”, with larger gaps

between elements is possible

 Sparse arrays tend to produce stronger grating lobes -

these can be minimized by using random
arrangements of the elements.
Array Lobes
 Far-field pattern of an array probe shows a main beam
and grating lobes at regular angular spacing

 Array lobes reduce useful steering range and may

generate multiple images
Array Lobes Fourier Transform:
A
 Beam width (main beam, lobes)
determined by aperture A
e
p  Steering width determined by
element width e
 Angular position of lobes
Z determined by frequency f and
pitch p
Fourier Transform
sinc(ex/z) sinc(Ax/z) 
 lobe  
p

-z/p z/p
Array Lobes - Rules of Thumb
 Element size (e)  λ, Side Lobes will
occur
 e < λ /2, No Side Lobes
 λ /2 < e < λ, Lobe  will depend
on steering angle
Array Lobes
Influence of pitch (p)
n=8
p=9
Array Main (for A = fixed)
lobe lobe
 If p reduces, and n increases
n=12 then lobe distance increases
p=6
and lobe amplitude decreases
n=16
p=4.5

n=20
p=3.6
 Design Issues - Equivalent Apertures
6 Elements (P) 1mm) 12 Elements (P) 0.4mm) 4 Elements (P)1mm) 8 Elements (P) 0.4mm)
Design Issues
Equivalent Apertures

6 Elements p=0.4mm 3 Elements p=1mm

Questions?