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Globalization: Ideological Dimension

Theoretical Frameworks & Analytic Eclecticism
1
서강대학교 교수학습센터
부소장 정유성
 What is an ideology?

“a system of widely shared ideas, patterned beliefs, guiding norms and values,
and regulated ideals accepted as fact or truth by some group”

“It is an agenda of things to discuss, questions to ask, hypothesis to make”

(Terrell Carver)
- Connection between ideas and politics

“A way of looking at the world that justifies or undermines an existing

order”(James Mittelman)
- Power hierarchy
 Knowledge and Power

• Power and knowledge are joined (Foucault)

• Dominant power structure (agents) sets dominant knowledge
• Dominant knowledge sets ideological discourse – to justify their power,
secure consent etc.
• Thus ideas infused in the globalization process inform the exercise of
power. And ideological analysis helps to decipher codes of domination.
• Ideological approach is useful to provide insight into the contested agendas
for globalization.
 Globalization and Ideology- Manfred B Steger (1)

• Is it possible to separate the social-scientific study of globalization from

ideological and normative matters?
• Researchers must enter into the value-laden arena of ideology – “the
exhibited normative preferences, and the rhetorical and polemical
maneuvers performed by the main participants in the public debate on
globalization – focus of the researcher’s critical task.” – critical assessment
of language about globalization
• The inclusion of one’s own beliefs and values do not necessarily invalidate
one’s research project.
 Globalization and Ideology- Manfred B Steger (2)

• The motivation and prejudices of the interpreter condition every act of

understanding (Hans-Georg Gadamar)
• “Academic efforts to capture the nature of globalization apart from the
ongoing ideological claims made in the public arena reinforce, intentionally
or not, the dominant globalist project that alternately masks and transmits a
neoliberal worldview, thus making it easier for existing power interest to
escape critical scrutiny.”
 5 Central claims of globalism - Manfred B. Steger

1. Globalization is about the liberalization and global integration of markets

2. Globalization is inevitable and irreversible
3. Nobody is in charge of globalization
4. Globalization benefits everyone.
5. Globalization furthers the spread of democracy in the world.
 5 Central claims of globalism - Manfred B. Steger (1)

1. Globalization is about the liberalization and global integration of markets

• Liberalization and global integration of markets – the best and most natural
way (self-regulating market as the normative basis)
• Thomas Friedman’s [The Lexus and the Olive Tree]:
• "A brilliant guide for the here and now."--The New York Times Book Review
• In this vivid portrait of the new business world, Thomas L. Friedman shows how technology, capital, and
information are transforming the global marketplace, leveling old geographic and geopolitical boundaries.
With bold reporting and acute analysis, Friedman dramatizes the conflict between globalizing forces and
local cultures, and he shows why a balance between progress and the preservation of ancient traditions will
ensure a better future for all. The Lexus and the Olive Tree is an indispensable look at power and big
change in the age of globalization.”
• “the driving idea behind globalization is free-market capitalism”
• Limited role for the government? – only realizable through government’s
active role
• Liberalization + Integration of markets = globalization?
• Alternative view?
5 Central claims of globalism - Manfred B. Steger (2)

2. Globalization is inevitable and irreversible.

• By focusing on the “logic” of technology and markets, globalists minimize
the role of human agency and individual choice – centerpiece of liberal
thought
• Margaret Thatcher “ there is no alternative.”
• Neoliberal policies are above politics, because they simply carry out what
is ordained by nature
• The narrative of inevitability also helps to justify the creation and execution
of governmental austerity measures
 5 Central claims of globalism - Manfred B. Steger (3)

3. Nobody is in charge of globalization.

• People are not in charge of globalization; markets and technology are.
• Is it outside the realm of human choice?
• Washington Consensus (IMF, WTO)
• “No one is in charge” – “America is in charge”- US militarism
 5 Central claims of globalism - Manfred B. Steger (4)

4. Globalization benefits everyone.

• Association of globalization with the universal benefits of market
liberalization. eg. Creating jobs
• Unequal global-distribution patterns – markets will eventually correct
“irregularities”
• Doubt about the effects of the free market panacea
 5 Central claims of globalism - Manfred B. Steger (5)

5. Globalization furthers the spread of democracy in the world.

• Free market and democracy are synonymous?

• Limited definition of democracy
• “promoting polyarchy”? – elitist model of market democracy
• Voting helps to obscure the conditions of inequality reflected in existing
asymmetrical power relations in society
 Outline

I. Major contending theories

II. Eclectic synthesis

III. Other concepts and ideas

IV. Americanization

V. Anti-Americanism

VI. Conclusion & Discussion

 I. Major Theories

 Explaining Globalization
a) issue of parsimony
→ can we explain everything about globalization with a single theory or
perspective?
→ causation issues
b) issue of ideological diversity
→ can we all agree on a single ideological explanation for globalization?
→ whether to focus on the materialist approach or ideational approach?
c) issue of complexity
→ can we neatly separate explanandum from explanans?
→ too often results in oversimplification & overgeneralization
 I. Major Theories

 Six contending theories

1) Liberalism
2) Political Realism
3) Marxism
4) Constructivism
5) Postmodernism
6) Feminism
 I. Major Theories

1) Liberalism
- tradition of laissez-faire economics (classical liberalism)
- focus on individuals, private entities
- idea of “harmony of interests”
- globalization as “the process of a market-led extension of modernization”
- a result of “natural human desires for economic welfare and political
liberty”
- necessary conditions for increased “transplanetary connectivity”
a) technological advances
b) suitable legal and institutional arrangements
- liberal institutionalism
 I. Major Theories

1) Liberalism
- some shortcomings of liberalism
a) “harmony of interests” does not exist in reality
b) assumes that human drives for economic growth and political liberty are
“natural”
c) culture-blindness
d) inadequate attention to power politics, distribution and balance of power
e) often fails to adequately explain poverty, inequality
 I. Major Theories

1) Liberalism
- Neo-liberalism (1970s~)
a) Friedrich von Hayek & Milton Friedman → “the Chicago School”
b) individual liberty + free market → “radically individualistic”
c) state should be subordinated to the economy
→ as a response to growing state intervention and policy of
collectivism in the 1930s (the Great Depression)
→ neo-liberal state v. social democratic state
d) “Chicago Boys” return to Chile to create a neo-liberal economy under
the Pinochet rule in the 1970s
(the “shock doctrine” → significant structural change)
 I. Major Theories

1) Liberalism
- Neo-liberalism (1970s~)
e) some components of neo-liberal reforms
→ aka, “Washington consensus” or structural adjustment
1) privatization of industry
→ heavy industry, telecommunications, banking, etc.
2) deregulation of the economy
→ lowering or removing trade barriers, licenses, etc.
3) reduction in government spending
→ especially on social welfare programs
f) 1980s-1990s
- neo-liberalism continues under the Thatcher & Reagan administrations
 I. Major Theories

1) Liberalism
- Neo-liberalism (1970s~)
g) the backlash
→ “absent was any concern for equity, redistribution, social issues, and
the environment”
→ Karl Polanyi (The Great Transformation, 1944)
- laissez-faire system and the capitalist principles are
not universal principles
- capitalist economy exists with the help of the state
- if left to itself, “it threatens to destroy society”
- Polanyi believed that collective planning and control would produce
more freedom for all than was available in the liberal economic
system
 I. Major Theories

1) Liberalism
- Neo-liberalism (1970s~)
h) contemporary criticisms
1) cultural differences on which ideas of well-being and freedom are
defined
2) neo-liberalism led to privatization of even the most fundamental public
functions
3) theory of creative destruction
→ Joseph Schumpeter
“process of industrial mutation that incessantly revolutionizes
the economic structure from within, incessantly destroying the old one,
incessantly creating a new one”
→ Capitalism destroys before creating
 I. Major Theories

2) Political Realism
- power relationship among the states; balance of power
- states are the principal actors in IR
- struggle and competition for power is inevitable
- Hegemonic Stability Theory
→ “if a ‘hegemon’ maintains int’l rules and institutions that both advance
its own interests and at the same time contain conflicts between other
states” the world will be more peaceful and prosperous
- globalization as a state’s strategy or foreign policy to increase its own
power vis-à-vis other states
 I. Major Theories

2) Political Realism
- some shortcomings of realism
a) politics-centrism; too much emphasis on power
b) presumes that every state’s motivation is power maximizing
c) neglects other dimensions, such as cultural, psychological…
d) state-centrism; neglects other important actors in the process of
globalization (e.g. IGOs, NGOs, MNCs, etc.)
e) oversimplification of international hierarchical order of states based on
power
 I. Major Theories

3) Marxism
- focus on class relations
- emerged as a criticism against classical liberalism
- globalization as an outcome of the capitalist mode of production
- Marx → “capital by its nature drives beyond every spatial barrier” to “conquer
the whole earth for its market”
- unlike liberals, Marxists see the technological advancement not as a
“natural” phenomenon but as a “historically specific impulses” and
motivation of capitalists
- increasing consolidation of the capitalist networks v. fragmentation of the
working class globally
- unlike liberals, Marxists see declining economic and political liberty as
globalization continues, driven by the capitalists
 I. Major Theories

3) Marxism
- some shortcomings of Marxism
a) too much emphasis on capitalism & economic relations
→ neglects other factors contributing to the increasing
“transplenatary connectivity”
b) historical materialism → neglects ideational aspects
c) class struggle presents overly simplistic view on globalization

- some other contemporary variants of Marxism

a) dependency theory
b) world system theory
 I. Major Theories

3) Marxism
- neo-Marxism
a) transnational capitalism (Leslie Sklair)
1) transnational corporations
“capitalism has moved away from being an inter-national system to being a
globalizing system that is decoupled from any specific geographic territory or
nation-state”
2) transnational capitalists class
→ “members” share global political & economic interests
3) culture-ideology of consumerism
→ sophistication of advertising, the media, etc., which also profit from
transnational capitalism
 I. Major Theories

3) Marxism
- neo-Marxism
b) Empire (Michael Hardt & Antonio Negri, 2000)
- “the reality of Empire is everywhere…omnipresent”
- de-centered global dominance
- post-modern reality
- Empire is far more ambitious than imperialism due to its
juridical power, based on the “order, norms, ethical truths,
a common notion of what is right, and so on”
- globalization per se is not the problem, but rather the
neo-liberal form it has taken in imperialism and Empire
 I. Major Theories

4) Constructivism (1990s~)
- methodological idealists
- social actors ‘construct’ their world throughout the process of
interaction and ‘inter-subjective’ communications
- focus on norms, identity, values, etc.
- “social geography is a mental experience as well as a physical fact”
- falls short of developing concrete explanation on globalization so far
- some shortcomings
a) neglects issues of structural inequalities, power hierarchies
b) often results in social-psychological reductionism
 I. Major Theories

5) Postmodernism
- methodological idealists, based on rationalism
- post-structuralism, post-colonialism, etc.
- focus on how and who constructs knowledge; knowledge power
- globalization as a process “whereby western rationalism imposes itself
across the planet on indigenous cultures and other non-modern life-
worlds”
- spread of modern rationalist mindset has been vital to the techno-
scientific advances and the creation of institutions that facilitate them
(“imperialism of rationalism”)
- some shortcomings
a) constrained by their methodological idealism
b) never claimed the status of a mainstream theory
 I. Major Theories

6) Feminism
- focus on gender relations, status of women in different societies
- structural subordination, marginalized status of females
- social construction of masculinity and femininity
- feminist postmodernism, feminist postcolonialism, etc.
- “patriarcal subordination of women and masculinist behavior patterns
are the primary forces that have generated other social structures such
as capitalism, the state, nationalism, and rationalism”
- IPE → reproductive economy v. productive economy
(private sphere) (public sphere)
- some shortcomings
a) globalization as the outcome of gender relations?
 II. Eclectic Synthesis

 Analytic eclecticism or Eclectic synthesis

- a broad-range perspective of synthesized insights from several

theoretical frameworks in a multifaceted explanation of globalization

- analytic eclecticism
“…approach that seeks to extricate, translate, and selectively integrate
analytic elements – concepts, logics, mechanisms, and interpretations – of theories or
narratives that have been developed within separate paradigms but that address
related aspects of substantive problems that have both scholarly and practical
significance”

- idea of weaving together the five issue areas

→ 1) geography, 2) production, 3) governance, 4) identity, and 5) knowledge
 II. Eclectic Synthesis

 Analytic eclecticism or Eclectic synthesis

1) geography in globalization
- transplanetary connectivity / supraterritorial connections
- “time-space compression” (David Harvey)

2) forces of production in globalization

- capitalist mode of production (surplus driven)
- as opposed to subsistence economy, or profligacy
- money as “the universal commodity”
a) market expansion – trans-world sales & distribution
b) global accounting – offshore banking, etc.
c) global sourcing – cheap labor, production facilities, etc.
d) surplus accumulation
 II. Eclectic Synthesis

 Analytic eclecticism or Eclectic synthesis

3) forces of governance in globalization
- “processes whereby people formulate, implement, enforce and review
rules to guide their common affairs”
- statism, polycentrism, and other modes of governance

- contribution of state governance

a) provision of infrastructure
b) liberalization of international transactions
c) guarantees of property rights for global capital
d) sponsorship of global governance arrangements

- from statism to polycentric modes of governance

 II. Eclectic Synthesis

 Analytic eclecticism or Eclectic synthesis

4) forces of identity in globalization
- mode of identity → a general way of defining and expressing
who people are
- nationalism as the predominant mode of identity in the 20th century
- inter-national relations as a core dynamic for nation-building
- how construction of identities have promoted globalization
a) concrete formation of national “selves” vis-à-vis others
b) nationality and globality have been largely co-dependent
c) increased attention to various non-territorial identities
(e.g. faith, gender, race, etc.)
 II. Eclectic Synthesis

 Analytic eclecticism or Eclectic synthesis

5) forces of knowledge in globalization
- globalization as a result in part of “certain powerful patterns of social
consciousness”
- modern rationalism rooted in the enlightenment
a) secularist
b) anthropocentric
c) ‘scientific’ or ‘objective’ character
d) instrumentalist
- in this way, rationalism subordinates all other ways of understanding
and acting on the world
- “scientific knowledge is non-territorial”
→ objective truth can and should be applied everywhere
 III. Other Concepts & Ideas

 Imperialism

 Colonialism

 Development

 Americanization,
universalization,
standardization,
westernization,
modernization, etc.
 III. Other Concepts & Ideas

 Imperialism
- various methods employed by one country to gain control of another
country (or geographical area), politically, economically, and
territorially
- Roman imperium
- expansive characteristics of empire vis-à-vis globalization
- European imperialism (late 19th c.) → vast economic motivation
- Lenin
a) Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism
b) economic nature of capitalism inevitably leads to capitalist
imperialism, seeking to control distant geographic areas
- idea of “de-centered imperialism”
→ due to the declining importance of the nation-state
 III. Other Concepts & Ideas

 Colonialism
- more formal methods of political control (settlers + institutions)
- Edward Said
“imperialism means the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a
dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory; colonialism,
which is almost always a consequence of imperialism, is the implanting
of settlements on distant territory”
- decolonization movement in the post-WWII era
- neo-colonialism → in more indirect, subtle form of control
- post-colonialism → issue of the legacy of colonialism, such as culture,
identity, persistence of colonial institutions
- effects on globalization → more severe on knowledge & identity
 III. Other Concepts & Ideas

 Development (1940s-1970s)
- newly independent countries; the South; the former colonies (Latin
America, Asia, Africa)
- import-substitution industrialization (ISI)
→ seeking economic and industrial independence
→ U.S. and the North benefited from this due to large FDIs
- dependency theory (world system theory)
→ instead of independence, ISI led to increasing
dependence on the developed countries
→ world divided into core/semi-periphery/periphery
- modernization theory
→ all societies develop in similar stages
(pre-modern or traditional → modern)
 IV. Americanization (1)

 Multifaceted meaning
→ economic, social, sports, political, military, legal system, etc.
→ McDonaldization, Wal-Martization, Disneyization, etc.
→ imports by non-Americans of that which is closely associated with
America/Americans
→ Americanization is a much more complex phenomenon than is
considered generally
→ Americanization has as much, or in some cases, more to do with the nation on
its receiving end than it does with America
→ some argue that the focus should be placed on the reciprocal relationship
between the two
→ what about the fast-food chain restaurants created in other countries and
exported back to the U.S.?
→ effects of Americanization have been different regionally
 IV. Americanization (2)

 Some concepts
1) Americanization without America
- consumer capitalism-driven, not direct influence from America
2) capacious Americanization v. resonant Americanization (1970s~)
3) beyond Americanization
- Japan’s vending machines
4) expressing Americanization
- proliferation of the modern credit card, American Express
5) indigenous Americanization
- Mecca Cola in Palestine (anti-American sentiment)
6) good, old-fashioned Americanization
- notion of the U.S. imposing itself on the world for its own good
7) post-Americanization
- “the rise of the rest” → Americans no longer define the world
 IV. Americanization (3)

 Anti-Americanism defined:

“is a predisposition to hostility toward the United States and American society, a
relentless critical impulse toward American social, economic, and political
institutions, traditions, and values;
it entails an aversion to American culture in particular and its influence abroad, often
also contempt for the American national character and dislike of American
people, manners, behavior, dress, and so on;
rejection of American foreign policy and a firm belief in the malignity of American
influence and presence anywhere in the world” (Hollander)

 Anti-Americanism is as much a product of globalization as

Americanization

 Chomsky: anti-Americanism = totalitarian idea originating from

Stalinism in the USSR (state policy = people, culture)
 IV. Americanization (4)

 Categories of Anti-Americanism
- Naim
a) psychological and religious hostility stemming from, and perpetuated by, long-
lasting stereotypes and images of America
b) historical anti-Americanism referring to the resentment toward the U.S. based on
its past behavior
c) political and economic anti-Americanism rooted in current political and economic
policies of the U.S.
d) cultural anti-Americanism, the resentment of America’s cultural domination and
the displacement of local cultures as a result of America’s global cultural
imperialism
 IV. Americanization (5)

 Categories of Anti-Americanism

- O’Connor’s (2007) five conceptions of anti-Americanism

a) one side of a dichotomy between pro- and anti-American
b) a tendency which can swing either pro- or anti-Americanism
depending on issues, time, and/or space
c) a pathological reaction to everything related to Americanism
d) a prejudice, when it prejudges America, Americans, etc.
e) an ideology presenting a distorted view of the true nature of
Americanism
 VI. Videoscripts

 Benjamin Barber’s Jihad v. McWorld (1995)

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fdZAyQwPca4)

 Anti-Americanism (2008)

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IvfaISzxs-c)
 Questions

1. What do you think about the central claims of the neoliberalism?

• Globalization is about the liberalization and global integration of markets
• Globalization is inevitable and irreversible
• Nobody is in charge of globalization
• Globalization benefits everyone.
• Globalization furthers the spread of democracy in the world.
2. Is it possible to separate the social-scientific study of globalization from
ideological and normative matters?