Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Data Link Layer
• Algorithms for achieving:

– Reliable,
– Efficient,
communication of a whole units – frames (as opposed to bits –
Physical Layer) between two machines.
• Two machines are connected by a communication channel that
acts conceptually like a wire (e.g., telephone line, coaxial cable, or
wireless channel).
• Essential property of a channel that makes it “wire-like” connection
is that the bits are delivered in exactly the same order in which they
are sent.
Data Link Layer Design Issues
• Services provided to the Network layer

• Framing
• Error control
• Flow control
Data Link Layer Design Issues
• Physical layer delivers bits of information to and from data link
layer. The functions of Data Link Layer are:
1. Providing a well-defined service interface to the network layer.
2. Dealing with transmission errors.
3. Regulating the flow of data so that slow receivers are not swamped
by fast senders.
• To accomplish these task, data link layer

– Takes the packets from Physical layer, and
– Encapsulates them into frames for transmission.
• Each frame has a
– frame header – a field for holding the packet, and
– frame trailer.
• Frame Management is what Data Link Layer does.
Packets and Frames
Relationship between packets and frames.
Services Provided to the Network Layer
• Principal Service Function of the data link layer is to transfer the
data from the network layer on the source machine to the network
layer on the destination machine.
– Job of data link layer is to transmit the bits to the destination

machine so they can be handed over to the network layer there.
Network Layer Services
(a) Virtual communication. (b) Actual communication.
Possible Services Offered
1. Unacknowledged connectionless service.

2. Acknowledged connectionless service.
3. Acknowledged connection-oriented service.
Unacknowledged Connectionless
Service
• It consists of having the source machine send independent
frames to the destination machine without having the destination
machine acknowledge them. No logical connections.
• If a frame is lost due to noise on the line, no attempt is made to

detect the loss or recover from it in the data link layer.
• This service is appropriate when the error rate is very low.
• Appropriate for real-time traffic, such as voice in which late date

are worse than bad data.
• Most LAN uses this service

Acknowledged Connectionless Service
• Here also no logical connection.
• Each frame send by the Data Link layer is acknowledged and the
sender knows if a specific frame has been received or lost.
• If the ack has not arrived within a specific time interval, it can be
sent again.
• This service is useful over unreliable channels such as wireless

systems
• Network layer does not know frame size of the packets and other
restriction of the data link layer. Hence it becomes necessary for
data link layer to have some mechanism to optimize the
transmission.
Acknowledged Connection Oriented
Service
• Source and Destination establish a connection first.
• Each frame sent is numbered

– Data link layer guarantees that each frame sent is indeed received.
– It guarantees that each frame is received only once and that all frames
are received in the correct order.
• Examples:
– Satellite channel communication,
– Long-distance telephone communication, etc.
Acknowledged Connection Oriented
Service
• Three distinct phases:
1. Connection is established by having both side initialize

variables and counters needed to keep track of which frames
have been received and which ones have not.
2. One or more frames are transmitted.
3. Finally, the connection is released – freeing up the variables,

buffers, and other resources used to maintain the
connection.
Framing
• To provide service to the network layer the data link layer must
use the service provided to it by physical layer.
• Stream of data bits provided to data link layer is not guaranteed

to be without errors.
• Errors could be:

– Number of received bits does not match number of transmitted
bits (deletion or insertion)
– Bit Value
• It is up to data link layer to correct the errors if necessary.
Framing
• Transmission of the data link layer starts with breaking up the bit
stream
– into discrete frames
– Computation of a checksum for each frame, and
– Include the checksum into the frame before it is transmitted.
• When the frame is received at the destination, the checksum is

recomputed. If it is different from the old value, data link layer
knows that error has occurred and takes steps to deal with it.
i.e discard the bad frame and sending back the error report.
Framing Methods
1. Character count.
2. Flag bytes with byte stuffing.
3. Flag bits with bit stuffing.
4. Physical layer coding violations.
Character Count Framing Method
• It uses a field in the header to specify the number of
characters in the frame.
• When the data link layer at the destination sees the

character count, it knows how many characters follow and
hence where the end of the frame is..
• Trouble with this algorithm is that when the count is

incorrectly received the destination will get out of synch with
transmission.
– Destination may be able to detect that the frame is in error but
it does not have a means (in this algorithm) how to correct it.
Framing (1)
A byte stream. (a) Without errors. (b) With one error.
Flag Bytes with Byte Stuffing
• This methods gets around the boundary detection of the frame by
having each appended by the frame start and frame end special
bytes.
• These starting and ending bytes are called flag byte.
• The problem with this method is that when binary data such as
object program or floating point numbers are being transmitted,
there is the chance that the transmitted data may contain the flag
bit pattern.
• Here to solve this a special escape byte (ESC)is added just before
each FLAG in the data.
• This technique is called byte stuffing or character stuffing.

Framing
a) A frame delimited by flag bytes.

b) Four examples of byte sequences before and after byte stuffing.
Flag Bits with Bit Stuffing Framing
Method
• The drawback of byte stuffing method is that it is closely tied to
the use of 8-bit characters.
• Bit stuffing methods achieves the same thing as Byte Stuffing

method by using Bits (1) instead of Bytes (8 Bits).
• Each frames begins and ends with a special bit patter:

– 01111110
– Whenever the sender’s data link layer encounters five
consecutive 1s in the data it automatically stuffs a 0 bit into
the outgoing bit stream.
Bit Stuffing
Bit stuffing. (a) The original data. (b) The data as they appear on
the line. (c) The data as they are stored in the receiver’s memory after
destuffing.
Bit Stuffing
• With bit stuffing, the boundary between the two frames

can be recognized by the flag pattern 01111110 which will
never occur in the actual message.
Error Control
• So we have solved the problem of marking the start and end of
each frame.
• Now the next problem is to ensure the correct delivery of these

frame to the network layer.
• Unacknowledged connectionless service: it is OK for the sender to

output frames regardless of its reception.
• Reliable connection-oriented service: it is NOT OK.

Error Control
• Reliable connection-oriented service usually will provide a
sender with some feedback about what is happening at the
other end of the line.
– Receiver Sends Back Special Control Frames.
– If the Sender Receives positive Acknowledgment it will know
that the frame has arrived safely.
– If ack is negative, it means something went wrong and the
frame is to be retransmitted.
• Sometimes, due to hardware problem, a frame may be

vanished completely. In this case, the receiver wont send
any ack.
Error Control
• Timer and Frame Sequence Number for the Sender is
Necessary to handle the case when there is no response
(positive or negative) from the Receiver .
• The sender will wait for ack until the timer expires.
• Send will retransmit the frame if the timer expires.
• This may lead to sending of frames multiple times.
• To prevent this from happening, a sequence number is

assigned to each sending frames. So th reciever can
discard the duplicate frames.
Flow Control
• Important Design issue for the cases when the sender is running on
a fast powerful computer and receiver is running on a slow low-end
machine.
• Two approaches:
1. Feedback-based flow control
2. Rate-based flow control
Feedback-based Flow Control
• Receiver sends back information to the sender giving it
permission to send more data, or
• Telling sender how receiver is doing.

Rate-based Flow Control
• Built in mechanism that limits the rate at which

sender may transmit data, without the need for
feedback from the receiver.
Error Detection and Correction
• Two basic strategies to deal with errors:

1. Include enough redundant information to
enable the receiver to deduce what the
transmitted data must have been.
Error correcting codes.
2. Include only enough redundancy to allow the
receiver to deduce that an error has occurred
(but not which error).
Error detecting codes.
Error Detection and Correction
• In some cases it is sufficient to detect an error

and in some, it requires the errors to be
corrected also. For eg.
– On a reliable medium : ED is sufficient where the error

rate is low and asking for retransmission after ED would
work efficiently
– In contrast, on an unreliable medium : Retransmission

after ED may result in another error and still another
and so on. Hence EC is desirable.
Error Detection & Correction Code
1. Hamming codes.
2. Binary convolutional codes.
3. Reed-Solomon codes.
4. Low-Density Parity Check codes.
• A frame consists of
– m data bits (message) and
– r redundant bits (check bits).
– Let the total length be n i.e n=m+r
• An n-bit unit containing data and check bits is referred to as n-

bit codeword.
Example
• Transmitted: 10001001
• Received: 10110001
XOR operation gives number of bits that are different.
• XOR: 00111000
• Number of bit positions in which two codewords differ

is called Hamming Distance.
• It shows that two codes are hamming distance d

apart, it will require d errors to convert one into the
other.
• All 2m possible data messages are legal, but due to

the way the check bits are computers not all 2n
possible code words are used.
• Only small fraction of 2m/2n=1/2r are possible will be
legal codewords.
• The error-detecting and error-correcting codes of the
block code depend on this Hamming distance.
• To reliably detect d error, one would need a distance
d+1 code.
• To correct d error, one would need a distance 2d+1
code.
• All 2m possible data messages are legal, but due to

the way the check bits are computers not all 2n
possible code words are used.
• Only small fraction of 2m/2n=1/2r are possible will be
legal codewords.
• The error-detecting and error-correcting codes of
the block code depend on this Hamming distance.
• To reliably detect d error, one would need a
distance d+1 code.
• To correct d error, one would need a distance 2d+1
code.
Example:
• 4 valid codes:
– 0000000000
– 0000011111
– 1111100000
– 1111111111
• Minimal Distance of this code is 5 => can correct and double
errors and it detect quadruple errors.
• 0000000111 => single or double – bit error. Hence the
receiving end must assume the original transmission was
0000011111.
• 0000000000 => had triple error that was received as
0000000111 it would be detected in error.
• One cannot perform double errors and at the same time detect
quadruple errors.
• Error correction requires evaluation of each candidate
codeword which may be time consuming search.
• Through design this search time can be minimized.
• In theory if n = m + r, this requirement becomes:
– (m + r + 1) ≤ 2r
Hamming Code
• Codeword: b1 b2 b3 b4 ….
• Check bits: The bits that are powers of 2
(p1, p2, p4, p8, p16, …).
• The rest of bits (m3, m5, m6, m7, m9, …)
are filled with m data bits.
• Example of the Hamming code with m = 7
data bits and r = 4 check bits is given in the
next slide.
The Hamming Code
Consider a message having four data bits (D) which is to be transmitted as a

7-bit codeword by adding three error control bits. This would be called a (7,4)
code. The three bits to be added are three EVEN Parity bits (P), where the
parity of each is computed on different subsets of the message bits as shown
below.
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
D D D P D P P 7-BIT CODEWORD
D - D - D - P (EVEN PARITY)
D D - - D P - (EVEN PARITY)
D D D P - - - (EVEN PARITY)
Hamming Code
• Why Those Bits? - The three parity bits (1,2,4) are related to
the data bits (3,5,6,7) as shown at right. In this diagram, each
overlapping circle corresponds to one parity bit and defines
the four bits contributing to that parity computation. For
example, data bit 3 contributes to parity bits 1 and 2. Each
circle (parity bit) encompasses a total of four bits, and each
circle must have EVEN parity. Given four data bits, the three
parity bits can easily be chosen to ensure this condition.
• It can be observed that changing any one bit numbered 1..7
uniquely affects the three parity bits. Changing bit 7 affects all
three parity bits, while an error in bit 6 affects only parity bits 2
and 4, and an error in a parity bit affects only that bit. The
location of any single bit error is determined directly upon
checking the three parity circles.
Hamming Code
Hamming Code
• For example, the message 1101 would be

sent as 1100110, since:
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 7-BIT CODEWORD
1 - 0 - 1 - 0 (EVEN PARITY)
1 1 - - 1 1 - (EVEN PARITY)
1 1 0 0 - - - (EVEN PARITY)
Hamming Codes
• When these seven bits are entered into the

parity circles, it can be confirmed that the
choice of these three parity bits ensures that
the parity within each circle is EVEN, as
shown here.
Hamming Code
• It may now be observed that if an error occurs in any of the

seven bits, that error will affect different combinations of the
three parity bits depending on the bit position.
• For example, suppose the above message 1100110 is sent

and a single bit error occurs such that the codeword 1110110
is received:
transmitted message received message
1100110 ------------> 1110110
BIT: 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 BIT: 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
The above error (in bit 5) can be corrected by examining which of

the three parity bits was affected by the bad bit:
Hamming Code
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 7-BIT CODEWORD
1 - 1 - 1 - 0 (EVEN PARITY) NOT! 1
1 1 - - 1 1 - (EVEN PARITY) OK! 0
1 1 1 0 - - - (EVEN PARITY) NOT! 1
Hamming Code
• In fact, the bad parity bits labeled 101 point directly to the bad
bit since 101 binary equals 5. Examination of the 'parity
circles' confirms that any single bit error could be corrected in
this way.
• The value of the Hamming code can be summarized:
1. Detection of 2 bit errors (assuming no correction is
attempted);
2. Correction of single bit errors;
3. Cost of 3 bits added to a 4-bit message.
• The ability to correct single bit errors comes at a cost which is
less than sending the entire message twice. (Recall that
simply sending a message twice accomplishes no error
correction.)
Error Detection Codes (2)
Example of an (11, 7) Hamming code

correcting a single-bit error.
Convolutional Codes
• Not a block code

• There is no natural message size or encoding boundary as in
a block code.
• The output depends on the current and previous input bits.
Encoder has memory.
• The number of previous bits on which the output depends is
called the constraint length of the code.
• They are deployed as part of the
– GSM mobile phone system
– Satellite Communications, and
– 802.11 (see example in the previous slide).
Error Detection Codes (3)
The NASA binary convolutional code used in 802.11.
Convolutional Encoders
• Like any error-correcting code, a convolutional code works by
adding some structured redundant information to the user's
data and then correcting errors using this information.
• A convolutional encoder is a linear system.
• A binary convolutional encoder can be represented as a shift
register. The outputs of the encoder are modulo 2 sums of the
values in the certain register's cells. The input to the encoder
is either the unencoded sequence (for non-recursive codes) or
the unencoded sequence added with the values of some
register's cells (for recursive codes).
• Convolutional codes can be systematic and non-systematic.
Systematic codes are those where an unencoded sequence is
a part of the output sequence. Systematic codes are almost
always recursive, conversely, non-recursive codes are almost
always non-systematic.
• A combination of register's cells that forms one of the output

streams (or that is added with the input stream for recursive
codes) is defined by a polynomial. Let m be the maximum
degree of the polynomials constituting a code, then K=m+1 is
a constraint length of the code.
Figure 1. A standard NASA convolutional

encoder with polynomials (171,133).
• For example, for the decoder on the Figure 1, the polynomials

are:
g1(z)=1+z+z2+z3+z6
g2(z)=1+z2+z3+z5+z6
• A code rate is an inverse number of output polynomials.
• For the sake of clarity, in this article we will restrict ourselves
to the codes with rate R=1/2. Decoding procedure for other
codes is similar.
• Encoder polynomials are usually denoted in the octal notation.
For the above example, these designations are “1111001” =
171 and “1011011” = 133.
• The constraint length of this code is 7.
• An example of a recursive convolutional encoder is on the
Figure 2.
Example of the Convolutional Encoder
Figure 2. A recursive convolutional

encoder.
Trellis Diagram
• A convolutional encoder is often seen as a finite state
machine. Each state corresponds to some value of the
encoder's register. Given the input bit value, from a certain
state the encoder can move to two other states. These state
transitions constitute a diagram which is called a trellis
diagram.
• A trellis diagram for the code on the Figure 2 is depicted on
the Figure 3. A solid line corresponds to input 0, a dotted line –
to input 1 (note that encoder states are designated in such a
way that the rightmost bit is the newest one).
• Each path on the trellis diagram corresponds to a valid
sequence from the encoder's output. Conversely, any valid
sequence from the encoder's output can be represented as a
path on the trellis diagram. One of the possible paths is
denoted as red (as an example).
Trellis Diagram
Figure 3. A trellis diagram corresponding to

the encoder on the Figure 2.
Trellis Diagram
• Note that each state transition on the diagram corresponds to

a pair of output bits. There are only two allowed transitions for
every state, so there are two allowed pairs of output bits, and
the two other pairs are forbidden. If an error occurs, it is very
likely that the receiver will get a set of forbidden pairs, which
don't constitute a path on the trellis diagram. So, the task of
the decoder is to find a path on the trellis diagram which is the
closest match to the received sequence.
Trellis Diagram
• Let's define a free distance df as a minimal Hamming distance

between two different allowed binary sequences (a Hamming
distance is defined as a number of differing bits).
• A free distance is an important property of the convolutional
code. It influences a number of closely located errors the
decoder is able to correct.
Viterbi Algorithm
• Viterbi algorithm reconstructs the maximum-likelihood path for

a given input sequence.
Error-Detecting Codes (1)
Linear, systematic block codes

1. Parity.
2. Checksums.
3. Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRCs).
Interleaving of parity bits to detect a burst error.
Example calculation of the CRC

Elementary Data Link Protocols (1)
• Utopian Simplex Protocol

• Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol
• Error-Free Channel
• Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol
• Noisy Channel
Implementation of the physical, data link, and network layers.
...
Some definitions needed in the protocols to follow. These

definitions are located in the file protocol.h.
...

Utopian Simplex Protocol (1)
...
A utopian simplex protocol.
Utopian Simplex Protocol (2)
A utopian simplex protocol.
Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol
for a Noisy Channel (1)
...
A simplex stop-and-wait protocol.
Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol
for a Noisy Channel (2)
A simplex stop-and-wait protocol.
Sliding Window Protocols (1)
...
A positive acknowledgement with retransmission protocol.
...
A sliding window of size 1, with a 3-bit sequence number.

(a) Initially. (b) After the first frame has been sent.
A sliding window of size 1, with a 3-bit sequence number

(c) After the first frame has been received. (d) After the first
acknowledgement has been received.
One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol (1)
...
A 1-bit sliding window protocol.

...


Two scenarios for protocol 4. (a) Normal case. (b) Abnormal

case. The notation is (seq, ack, packet number). An asterisk
indicates where a network layer accepts a packet
Protocol Using Go-Back-N (1)
Pipelining and error recovery. Effect of an error when

(a) receiver’s window size is 1
Pipelining and error recovery. Effect of an error when

(b) receiver’s window size is large.
...
A sliding window protocol using go-back-n.
...
...
...
...
...
Simulation of multiple timers in software. (a) The queued

timeouts (b) The situation after the first timeout has expired.
Protocol Using Selective Repeat (1)
...
A sliding window protocol using selective repeat.
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
a) Initial situation with a window of size7

b) After 7 frames sent and received but not acknowledged.
c) Initial situation with a window size of 4.
d) After 4 frames sent and received but not acknowledged.
Example Data Link Protocols
1. Packet over SONET

2. ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop)
Packet over SONET (1)
Packet over SONET. (a) A protocol stack. (b) Frame relationships
PPP Features
1. Separate packets, error detection
2. Link Control Protocol
3. Network Control Protocol
The PPP full frame format for unnumbered mode operation
State diagram for bringing a PPP link up and down
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber Loop) (1)
ADSL protocol stacks.
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber Loop) (1)
AAL5 frame carrying PPP data
End
Chapter 3

Data Link Layer

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Data Link Layer

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The Data Link Layer

• Algorithms for achieving:

• Services provided to the Network layer

• To accomplish these task, data link layer

Relationship between packets and frames.

– Job of data link layer is to transmit the bits to the destination

(a) Virtual communication. (b) Actual communication.

1. Unacknowledged connectionless service.

• If a frame is lost due to noise on the line, no attempt is made to

• This service is appropriate when the error rate is very low.

• Appropriate for real-time traffic, such as voice in which late date

• Most LAN uses this service

• This service is useful over unreliable channels such as wireless

• Each frame sent is numbered

1. Connection is established by having both side initialize

2. One or more frames are transmitted.

3. Finally, the connection is released – freeing up the variables,

• Stream of data bits provided to data link layer is not guaranteed

• Errors could be:

• When the frame is received at the destination, the checksum is

• When the data link layer at the destination sees the

• Trouble with this algorithm is that when the count is

A byte stream. (a) Without errors. (b) With one error.

• These starting and ending bytes are called flag byte.

• This technique is called byte stuffing or character stuffing.

a) A frame delimited by flag bytes.

• Bit stuffing methods achieves the same thing as Byte Stuffing

• Each frames begins and ends with a special bit patter:

• With bit stuffing, the boundary between the two frames

• Now the next problem is to ensure the correct delivery of these

• Unacknowledged connectionless service: it is OK for the sender to

• Reliable connection-oriented service: it is NOT OK.

• Sometimes, due to hardware problem, a frame may be

• Send will retransmit the frame if the timer expires.

• This may lead to sending of frames multiple times.

• To prevent this from happening, a sequence number is

• Telling sender how receiver is doing.

• Built in mechanism that limits the rate at which

• Two basic strategies to deal with errors:

• In some cases it is sufficient to detect an error

– On a reliable medium : ED is sufficient where the error

– In contrast, on an unreliable medium : Retransmission

• An n-bit unit containing data and check bits is referred to as n-

• Number of bit positions in which two codewords differ

• It shows that two codes are hamming distance d

• All 2m possible data messages are legal, but due to

• All 2m possible data messages are legal, but due to

Consider a message having four data bits (D) which is to be transmitted as a

• For example, the message 1101 would be

• When these seven bits are entered into the

• It may now be observed that if an error occurs in any of the

• For example, suppose the above message 1100110 is sent

The above error (in bit 5) can be corrected by examining which of

Example of an (11, 7) Hamming code

• Not a block code

The NASA binary convolutional code used in 802.11.

• A combination of register's cells that forms one of the output

Figure 1. A standard NASA convolutional

• For example, for the decoder on the Figure 1, the polynomials