EEG 829

Information Technology
Course outline
• Data communication: Data transmission- transmission media,
encoding communication interface, link control, multiplexing
local/wide area network circuit switching, packet switching, frame
relay and asynchronous transfer mode, LAN technology, LAN systems,
bridges communication architectures, internetworking, transport
protocol, network security, distributed applications
Recommended texts
• DATA AND COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS by William Stallings
 Signal Encoding and Modulation
• Digital signalling is the process of encoding a data source g(t), which may be
either digital or analog, into a digital signal x(t).The actual form of x(t) depends
on the encoding technique and is chosen to optimize use of the transmission
medium.
• The basis for analog signalling is a continuous constant-frequency signal
known as the carrier signal. The frequency of the carrier signal is chosen to be
compatible with the transmission medium being used.
• Data may be transmitted using a carrier signal by modulation. Modulation is
the process of encoding source data onto a carrier signal with frequency fc. All
modulation techniques involve operation on one or more of the three
fundamental frequency domain parameters: amplitude, frequency, and phase.
• The input signal m(t) may be analog or digital and is called the modulating
signal or baseband signal. The result of modulating the carrier signal is called
the modulated signal s(t).
• There are four possible combinations:
• Digital data, digital signal: encoding digital data into a digital signal is less
complex and less expensive than digital-to analog modulation equipment.
• Analog data, digital signal: Conversion of analog data to digital form permits
the use of modern digital transmission and switching equipment.
• Digital data, analog signal: Some transmission media, such as optical fiber
and unguided media, will only propagate analog signals.
• Analog data, analog signal: Analog data in electrical form can be transmitted
as baseband signals easily and cheaply. This is done with voice transmission
over voice-grade lines. One common use of modulation is to shift the
bandwidth of a baseband signal to another portion of the spectrum.
 Digital data to digital signal:
• Digital data: binary data – bits 0, 1
• Digital signal: a sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses.
• Methods: NRZ, Multi-level binary, biphase
Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ)-
• use two different voltage levels for the two binary digits. Other variants of this
include Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)- a negative voltage represents one
binary value and a positive voltage represents the other, NRZI (Nonreturn to
Zero, invert on ones)- maintains a constant voltage pulse for the duration of
a bit time.The data themselves are encoded as the presence or absence
of a signal transition at the beginning of the bit time. A transition (low to
high or high to low) at the beginning of a bit time denotes a binary 1 for
that bit time; no transition indicates a binary 0.
• The NRZ codes are the easiest to engineer and, in addition, make efficient use of
bandwidth.
• The main limitations of NRZ signals are the presence of a dc component and the
lack of synchronization capability
• Because of their simplicity and relatively low frequency response characteristics,
NRZ codes are commonly used for digital magnetic recording. However, their
limitations make these codes unattractive for signal transmission applications
 Multi level Binary
• use more than two signal levels to represent bits using bipolar-AMI (alternate
mark inversion) and pseudoternary methods.
• bipolar-AMI scheme, a binary 0 is represented by no line signal, and a binary
1 is represented by a positive or negative pulse with the binary 1 pulses
alternating in polarity.
• pseudoternary methods is an inverse of bipolar-AMI
• There are several advantages to this approach
• there will be no loss of synchronization if a long string of 1s occurs because 1 introduces
a transition, and the receiver can resynchronize on that transition though a long string
of 0s would still be a problem.
• because the 1 signals alternate in voltage from positive to negative, there is no net dc
component. Also, the bandwidth of the resulting signal is considerably less than the
bandwidth for NRZ
• the pulse alternation property provides a simple means of error detection. Any isolated
error, whether it deletes a pulse or adds a pulse, causes a violation of this property.
 biphase
• Manchester code has is a transition at the middle of each bit period. This midbit
transition serves as a clocking mechanism and also as data: a low-to-high transition
represents a 1, and a high-to-low transition represents a 0.
• In differential Manchester, the midbit transition is used only to provide clocking. The
encoding of a 0 is represented by the presence of a transition at the beginning of a
bit period, and a 1 is represented by the absence of a transition at the beginning of a
bit period. Differential Manchester has the added advantage of employing
differential encoding.
• All of the biphase techniques require at least one transition per bit time and may
have as many as two transitions. Thus, the maximum modulation rate is twice that
for NRZ; this means that the bandwidth required is correspondingly greater.
• Advantages of biphase schemes include:
Synchronization: Because there is a predictable transition during each bit time,
the receiver can synchronize on that transition. For this reason, the biphase
codes are known as self-clocking codes.
No dc component: Biphase codes have no dc component
Error detection: The absence of an expected transition can be used to detect
errors.
Modulation rate (baud)
• rate at which signal elements are generated rep by D
𝑅 𝑅
•𝐷= =
𝐿 log2 𝑀
• L = number of bits per signal element
• M = number of different signal elements = 2𝐿
• R = data rate, bps
• D = modulation rate, baud
Digital data to analog signal
• Three methods are used toconver bits to analog signal- amplitude
shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying
(PSK).
 ASK
• In ASK, the two binary values are represented by two different amplitudes of
the carrier frequency. Commonly, one of the amplitudes is zero; that is, one
binary digit is represented by the presence, at constant amplitude, of the
carrier, the other by the absence of the carrier
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 1
• 𝑠 𝑡 =ቊ where the carrier frequency is 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
0 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 0

• ASK is susceptible to sudden gain changes and is a rather inefficient

modulation technique. On voice-grade lines, it is typically used only up to
1200 bps. The ASK technique is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
• For LED (light-emitting diode) transmitters one signal element is represented
by a light pulse while the other signal element is represented by the absence
of light. Laser transmitters normally have a fixed “bias” current that causes the
device to emit a low light level. This low level represents one signal element,
while a higher-amplitude lightwave represents another signal element.
 FSK
• BFSK: two binary values are represented by two different frequencies near the
carrier frequency.
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 1
• 𝑠 𝑡 =ቊ where 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are typically offset from the carrier frequency by equal but opposite amounts.
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 0
• BFSK is less susceptible to error than ASK. On voice-grade lines, it is typically
used up to 1200 bps. It is also commonly used for high-frequency (3 to 30
MHz) radio transmission. It can also be used at even higher frequencies on
local area networks that use coaxial cable.
 MFSK
• multiple FSK (MFSK) more than two frequencies are used. In this case each
signalling element represents more than one bit. The transmitted MFSK signal
for one signal element time can be defined as
• 𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑖 𝑡 , 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑀
where 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 + (2𝑖 − 1 − 𝑀)𝑓𝑑 ; 𝑓𝑐 is carrier frequency; 𝑓𝑑 is the difference frequency; L
= number of bits per signal element; M = number of different signal elements = 2𝐿

• To match the data rate of the input bit stream, each output signal element is
held for a period of 𝑇𝑠 = 𝐿𝑇seconds, where T is the bit period (data ). Thus,
one signal element, which is a constant-frequency tone, encodes L bits.
total bandwidth required is 2𝑀𝑓𝑑
1
minimum frequency separation 2𝑓𝑑 =
𝑇𝑠
𝑀
∴the modulator requires a bandwidth of 𝑊𝑑 = 2𝑀𝑓𝑑 =
𝑇𝑠
 Phase Shift Keying
• In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data.
• Two-Level PSK (BPSK)- The simplest scheme uses two phases to represent the two
binary digits and is known as binary phase shift keying. The resulting transmitted
signal for one bit time is
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 1
• 𝑠 𝑡 =ቊ =ቊ
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋 −𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 0
• An alternative form of two-level PSK is differential PSK (DPSK) in which a binary 0 is
represented by sending a signal burst of the same phase as the previous signal burst
sent. A binary 1 is represented by sending a signal burst of opposite phase to the
preceding one. This differential refers to the fact that the phase shift is with
reference to the previous bit transmitted rather than to some constant reference
signal. In differential encoding, the information to be transmitted is represented in
terms of the changes between successive data symbols rather than the signal
elements themselves. DPSK avoids the requirement for an accurate local oscillator
phase at the receiver that is matched with the transmitter. As long as the preceding
phase is received correctly, the phase reference is accurate.
 Four-Level PSK
• More efficient use of bandwidth can be achieved if each signalling element
represents more than one bit. For example, instead of a phase shift of 180°, as
allowed in BPSK, a common encoding technique, known as quadrature phase shift
𝜋
keying (QPSK), uses phase shifts separated by multiples of with each signal element
2
represents two bits rather than one

𝜋
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 4 11
3𝜋
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 4
01
• 𝑠 𝑡 = 3𝜋
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 4 00
𝜋
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 10
4

• Other variants of QPSK is the orthogonal QPSK.

• Another analog signalling method is the Quadrature Amplitude Modulation which is
is a combination of ASK and PSK
 ANALOG DATA to DIGITAL SIGNALS (digitisation)
• Analog data- digital data- digital signal
• The digital signal may be obtained by:
• The digital data can be transmitted using NRZ-L. In this case, we have in fact gone
directly from analog data to a digital signal.
• The digital data can be encoded as a digital signal using a code other than NRZ-L. Thus
an extra step is required.
• The digital data can be converted into an analog signal, using one ASK, PSK or FSK
modulation
• The device used for converting analog data into digital form for transmission,
and subsequently recovering the original analog data from the digital, is
known as a codec (coder-decoder) based on two principal techniques: pulse
code modulation and delta modulation
 pulse code modulation
• Pulse code modulation (PCM) is based on the sampling theorem stated as
follow:
• SAMPLING THEOREM: If a signal f(t) is sampled at regular intervals of time and
at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency, then the samples
contain all the information of the original signal. The function f(t) may be
reconstructed from these samples by the use of a lowpass filter.
• PCM starts with a continuous-time, continuous-amplitude (analog) signal,
from which a digital signal is produced. The digital signal consists of blocks of n
bits, where each n-bit number is the amplitude of a PCM pulse. On reception,
the process is reversed to reproduce the analog signal. However, the process
violates the terms of the sampling theorem. By quantizing the PAM pulse, the
original signal is now only approximated and cannot be recovered exactly. This
effect is known as quantizing error or quantizing noise. The signal-to-noise
ratio for quantizing noise can be expressed as
• 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 20 log 2𝑛 + 1.76 𝑑𝐵 = 6.02𝑛 + 1.76 𝑑𝐵
 Delta Modulation
• Here, an analog input is approximated by a staircase function that moves up or
down by one quantization level at each sampling interval. The important
characteristic of this staircase function is that its behavior is binary: At each
sampling time, the function moves up or down a constant amount Thus, the
output of the delta modulation process can be represented as a single binary
digit for each sample. In essence, a bit stream is produced by approximating the
derivative of an analog signal rather than its amplitude.
• There are two important parameters in a DM scheme: the size of the step
assigned to each binary digit, and the sampling rate.
• The principal advantage of DM over PCM is the simplicity of its implementation.
In general, PCM exhibits better SNR characteristics at the same data rate.
 Analog Data to Analog Signals
• Three techniques: amplitude modulation (AM), frequency
modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).
• Amplitude Modulation: is the simplest form of modulation and is
expressed mathematically as:
𝑠 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑛𝑎 𝑥 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡; 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 where is the carrier and
𝑥(𝑡) is the
input signal (carrying data), both normalized to unity amplitude. The
parameter 𝑛𝑎 known as the modulation index, is the ratio of the
amplitude of the input signal to the carrier. the input signal is 𝑛𝑎 𝑥 𝑡
and the “1” in the Equation is a dc component that prevents loss of
information. This scheme is also known as double sideband
transmitted carrier (DSBTC).
 Angle Modulation
• Frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM) are
special cases of angle modulation. The modulated signal is
expressed as
Angle Modulation: 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ∅ 𝑡
• For phase modulation, the phase is proportional to the
modulating signal: PM: ∅ 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑝 𝑚 𝑡 ; where 𝑛𝑝 is
the phase modulation index.
• For frequency modulation, the derivative of the phase is
proportional to the modulating signal: ∅ሖ 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 ;
where 𝑛𝑓 is the frequency modulation index and ∅ሖ 𝑡 is the
derivative of ∅ 𝑡 .
Tutorial Questions
• The text page 176, the even numbered under Problems: 5.2, 5.4…