UNIT OPERATION OF MINING

5.1 FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OPERATIONS OF MINING

• 5.1 FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OPERATIONS AND CYCLES
In several stages of mining (exploration. development, and exploitation), the
activity is often performed in a cyclic manner using a series of fundamental
steps to free and transport the mineral being mined. As introduced in Section
1.5, these basic steps are termed the unit operations of mining. I they are
directly involved in mineral extraction, we call them production operations;
auxiliary operations support production but are usually not directly part of it
unless they are essential to worker safety or operating efficiency. Our interest in
this chapter is primarily in those unit operations necessary during development
and exploitation
Two basic functions are required in the extraction of minerals: excavation and
handling. For mineral resources that are harder to break. the excavation step
requires that drilling (rock penetration) and blasting (rock fragmentation) be
performed.
The sequence of unit operations used to accomplish mine development or
exploitation is called the cycle of operations, that is, the sequence of
operations that is repeated over and over to produce the mineral commodity:
The most cycle of operations used for mine production is as follows:

Basic production cycle = drill + blast + load + haul

5.2 DRILLING AND OTHER ROCK PENETRATION METHODS

5.2.1 Rock Breakage

The freeing or detaching of large masses of harder rock from the parent
deposit is termed rock breakage. Several historical events contributed to the
success of miners in their quest to break rock for mining or construction
projects. Some of these are discussed in section 1.3. The first advance was the
discovery in prehistoric times that fire building and water quenching can break
rock. This produced thermal stresses to overcome the cohesive strength of the
rock. Later is was discovered that black powder, dynamite, ammonium nitrate
and fuel oil, and water-based explosives could be used to break rock more
efficiently.
Mining today has the same objectives it had in ancient times and employs the same
basic elements of the production cycle, breakage and handling. It was with the
introduction of blasting into the production cycle mining became much more efficient
in the production of minerals. Today, most progress is being made in the
mechanization of certain mineral production operations. Under the right conditions,
mechanized rock breakage and haulage without explosives is the most continuous
and cost-efficient method of mineral extraction In traditional mining practice, two
different types of rock breakage operations are performed. In rock penetration
(drilling, boring, or channeling),a directed hole or kerf is formed, usually mechanically
but sometimes hydraulically or thermally, (1) for the placement of explosives for
blasting or to produce a free face for blasting, (2) to produce a finished mine
opening, or (3) to extract a mineral product of desired size and shape(for example,
dimension stone). In contrast, rock fragmentation attempts to break rock into
manageable sizes, normally by chemical energy in blasting or by mechanical,
hydraulic, or other more novel applications of energy.
Although operating on different scales, penetration and fragmentation
function by applying energy through similar mechanisms to break rock. The
very rapid application of energy is critical in producing rock failure in many of
these processes. Thus, we normally apply dynamic loading (in preference to
static loading) to accomplish the penetration or fragmentation. It is ordinarily
assumed that the weight “W” of the rock broken, using any given rock
breakage method, is proportional to the energy “E” consumed in the process:

𝑊∝𝐸 (5.1)
In drilling and other penetration processes, the rate of advance R, the
penetration per unit time, is more important than the amount of rock broken
Hence, the basic relation becomes
𝑅 ∝ dE/dt (5.2)

where dE/dt' is the time rate of application of the energy to the rock. Because
dE/dt is also the power P consumed in the process, we may write' Eq. 5.2 in the
form

𝑅∝𝑃 (5.3)
which indicates that in drilling, cutting, boring, or any other similar process- the
penetration rate is directly proportional to the power applied to the process In
modeling rock breakage processes, we must also understand the
characteristics and behavior of rock. We know that the rock parameters (i.e.
compressive, shear, and tensile strengths) resist failure induced by the applied
loads. Because the strengths decrease in the order stated, it is advantageous
apply the loads to overcome the smallest strength (tensile) and the next
smallest strength (shear) before the rock is broken, by compressive loads.
However, that is normally not easy to do in drilling operations, and the rock is
often broken by the application of compressive forces. In an era of
increasingly expensive energy, drill designers are paying more attention to Eqs.
5.1 and 5.3 in order to conserve energy.
• 5.2.2 Principles of Rock Penetration
Rock penetration methods can be classified on several bases. These include
the size of hole, method' of mounting, and type of power. The scheme
outlined in Table 51 (Hartman, 1990) is based on the form of attack on the rock
and the mode of energy application to the rock. This is a general scheme,
which includes all forms of penetration, with conventional drilling tools being
the most important.
• 5.2.2.1 Mechanical Attack.
The application of mechanical energy to rock masses is the primary method used in
traditional drilling. It utilizes either percussive or rotary action, or a combination of both,
at the bottom of the hole to penetrate the rock mass. There is a difference in the
application of energy between the standard percussion drill and the rotary-percussion
drill. The percussion drill employs a drill rod rotational system that indexes each
percussive blow of the hammer at a different spot, so as to drill more effectively
However, the rotation does not involve any significant amount of energy application
to the rock. The rotary-percussion drill uses an independent rotational system that
applies a shearing force to the bottom of the hole by means of the rotation. The
rotational energy helps to break additional cuttings from the hole and increases
drilling efficiency. In surface mines, roller-bit rotary and large percussion or rotary-
percussion drills are in use, with roller rotaries heavily favored for most applications.
Underground, percussion drills are used for most applications in hard rock and drag-bit
rotaries are used in soft-rock applications
• 5.2.2.2 Thermal Attack.
Thermal drilling is one of the novel excavation methods that have found
practical application in rock penetration. The jet piercer drill, which uses fuel
oil and oxygen to produce a flame capable of spalling rock, has been
applied in the taconite iron ore range as a practical drilling tool. It as also
found some use in the channeling of rock in dimension stone quarries and in a
few other hard-rock mining applications. However, it has never been
responsible for a large percentage of the minerals produced. The thermal
methods have also recently decreased in popularity because of the
increased effectiveness of mechanical drilling equipment.
• 5.2.2.3 Fluid Attack.
Using a hydraulic fluid to attack a mineral deposit has been a productive
method of mining for more than a century. main application has been in
placer deposits, where hydraulic monitors have been used. High-pressure
water jets have also been applied more recently to the mining of coal,
gilsonite, and other consolidated materials. In these cases however, the action
is more fragmentation than pen. However, it is now well established that fluid
attack is capable of drilling rock effectively, both alone and as an assist to a
mechanical drill. The applications so far have been confined primarily to
specialty cutting and drilling operations.
• 5.2.2.4 Other Novel Methods.
Although other methods of penetration have been applied to rock in experiments,
they arc nearly all considered to be of scientific. rather than practical, value at the
present time. The field of novel drilling techniques has been explored extensively by
Maurer (1968, 1980). He continues to pursue the more exotic drilling methods for their
practical applications and remains optimistic that some of these methods may be
important in the future.

• 5.2.3 Drilling
Most drilling is employed in mining for the placement and efficient use of explosives. At
times, is used for sampling the mineral deposit during exploration, for the placement of
rock bolts, anchors, and cable reinforcements, and for the placement of electrical
and communications lines and water pipes in mines. The predominant use of drilling in
coal mines today is for the placement of roof bolts. When holes are used for the
placement of explosives, the operation is known as production drilling. We now look at
some of the principles of drill selection and utilization.
• 5.2.3.1 Operating Components of the System.
The drilling system usually consists of four components that work together to
penetrate the rock :
1. The drill, the mechanical device (and its carriage, if applicable) that.
converts energy from its original source (electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic, or
combustion engine) into rotational and/or percussive energy to penetrate
the rock
2. The drill rod (also called a steel, stem, or pipe) that transmits energy from
the drill to the bit.
3. The bit, which attacks the rock with rotational and/or percussive action.
4. The circulation fluid that cleans the hole, controls dust, cools the bit, and
at times) stabilizes the hole.
The first three are the physical components of the drilling system, accomplish
the penetration of the rock, and the fourth enhances the efficiency of the drill
by removing cuttings from the bottom of the hole.
Much has been done over the last few decades to make drilling tools more
efficient by reducing the energy losses in transmission. This has resulted in the
use of downhole (in-the-hole) drills of both the large percussion type and the
roller-bit rotary (electrodrill and turbodrill) type, although the latter has found
application mainly in oil well drilling. The second type replaces mechanical
energy with fluid or electrical energy, which usually results in more energy
reaching the bit and faster drilling.
• 5.2.3.2 Mechanics and Performance Factors of Penetration.
As indicated previously, there are only two basic ways to attack rock mechanically
percussion and rotation-and all commercial drilling methods to be discussed utilize
percussion or rotation principles or combinations of them. A graphical depiction of the
different mechanical methods of drilling rock is shown in Figure 5.1. Note that the
percussion drill attacks the rock through compression, the rotary (drag-bit) drill by
shearing or applying tension to the rock, and the rotary-percussion drill by utilizing a
combination of all three methods. More information on the elect of mechanical
attack on rock can be found in Maurer (1967) and Clark (1987)
The resistance of rock to penetration by drilling tools is termed its drilling strength, an
empirical property; it is not equivalent to any of the well-known strength parameters.
The drilling strength and the wear on the bits are extremely important in the
determination of the drilling cost. Other factors that affect drill performance can be
categorized into four groups:
1. Operating variables.
These affect the four components of the drilling system (drill, rod, bil, and fluid). They
are largely controllable and include factors that affect the tools (drill power, blow
energy and frequency, rotary speed, thrust, and rod design) and drillhole cleaning
(luid properties and low rate).
2. Drillhole factors.
These include hole size, length, and inclination; they are dictated by outside
requirements and thus are largely uncontrollable ole diameters in surface mining are
typically 6 to 18 in. (150 to 450 mm underground, they range from 1.5 to 7 in. (40 to 175
mm)
3. Rock fact.
These consist of properties of the rock, geological conditions surrounding the rock, and
the state of stress acting on the drillhole. Often referred to as drillability factors, they
determine the strength of the rock and lit dl performance. Because these factors are a
result of the geologic environment, they are largely uncontrollable.
4. Service factors.
These variables include labor ad supervision, power supply, job site conditions,
weather, and so forth Except for labor and supervision, they are independent factors
and cannot often be affected by the drill operator
• Because the operating variables are the most controllable, a complete
knowledge of the interaction of the drilling variables and the drilling
efficiency is very important. A variety of sources giving information on the
effects of drilling parameters on efficiency are available in Clark (1987),
Hartman (1990), Lopez Jimeno et al (1995), and Karanam and Misra (1998).
Among the most important parameters to consider are drill power, thrust,
torque, rotary speed blow energy, blows per minute (BPM), and the flow of
the hole-flushing fluid. In addition, it is important to choose the proper bit
type and rod dimensions to provide a good match with the drill.
• 5.2.3.3 Drill Selection.
In selecting the optimal drilling system, it is necessary to evaluate drill performance.
Performance can be measured in a number of ways. The most commonly measured
parameters include the following:
1. Process energy and power consumption
2. Penetration rate
3. Bit wear (life)
4. Cost (ownership + operating = overall)
These parameters are all important, but the ultimate measure of performance is cost. If
a drill has an excellent penetration rate but is not cost-effective, then an alternative
system should be sought. Note also that the overall goal of mining is the minimization
of all rock breakage, handling, and processing costs Drilling affects blasting, which in
turn affects excavation and processing costs Thus, it is important to realize that
minimizing overall cost is the primary goal in the choice of the drilling system, and that
some drilling efficiency may have sacrificed to enhance blasting, excavation, or
processing efficiencies.
These parameters are all important, but the ultimate measure of performance
is cost. If a drill has an excellent penetration rate but is not cost-elfective, then
an alternative system should be sought. Note also that the overall goal of
mining is the minimization of all rock breakage, handling, and processing cosis
Drilling affects blasting, which in turn affects excavation and processing costs
Thus, it is important to realize that minimizing overall cost is the primary goal in
the choice of the drilling system, and that some drilling efficiency may have
sacrificed to enhance blasting, excavation, or processing efficiencies.
• 5.2.4 Kerf Cutting and Mechanical Excavation
• The development of tungsten carbide cutting elements in 1945, (see Table
1.2) opened up a whole new set of possibilities for extending percussion and
rotary drilling principles to the penetration of geologic materials on a larger
scale Some of the tools available combine both penetration and
fragmentation principles. These methods have enabled successful cutting of
kerfs (channels) and excavation of entire faces for a variety of mining
applications. Combined with lame jet tools, wire saws, diamond saws, and
conventional mining tools, the technology for cutting kerfs and faces now
provides an impressive list of possibilities:
1. Kerf cutting machines with
a. Coal and soft nonmetallic minerals: chainsaw-type cutting either a fixed cutter,
bar or a universal (moveable) cutter bar.
b. Dimension stone; channeling machines (percussion or flam e jet), wire saws,
circular saws with diamond blades
2. Full-face excavating
a. Underground metal
i) Continuous miners and longwall shearers in coal or soft nonmetallics
ii) Boom-type miners (roadheaders) in soft to medium rocks
iii) Rapid excavation equipment (tunnel borers, raise borers, and shaft sinking rigs) for
soft to medium-hard rock
b. Surface
(i) Rippers for very compact soil, coal, and weathered or soft
(ii) Bucket-wheel and cutting-head excavators for soil or coal
(iii) Augers and highwall miners for coal (iv) Mechanical dredges for placers and soil
Better technology in cutting tools has provided new opportunities for
penetrating rock without the use of explosives. The preceding outline lists the
variety of applications currently available to the mining industry. The winning
of coal with cutting tools is now the standard of the industry, and rapid
excavation methods are gaining in their range of applications. This area of
rapid excavation is likely to be even more productive in the future.
• 5.3 BLASTING AND ROCK FRAGMENTATION
5.3.1 Principles of Rock Fragmentation As discussed previously, rock fragmentation is the
breakage function carried out on a large scale to fragment masses of rock. In both the
mining and construction industries, blasting is the predominant fragmentation method
employed, but other techniques are becoming more common. Electrical fracturing of
rock has been used sparingly for secondary breakage of boulders in surface mines
(Maurer, 1980); the other methods are all in common use.
5.3.2 Theory of Explosives
5.3.2.1 Nature of Explosives. An explosive is any chemical compound, mixture, or
device, the primary objective of which is to function by explosion (Hopler, 1998).
The decomposition of the explosive is a high-velocity exothermic reaction,
accompanied by the liberation of vast amounts of energy and hot gases at tremendous
pressure. The process is termed detonation if the propagation speed of the reaction
through the explosive mass is supersonic. For regulatory purposes, a detonating
explosive is a high explosive if it can be initiated by a≠8 blasting cap ( Hopler . 1998 )
A blasting agent is chemical material that can detonate under the right impulse but
meets prescribed criteria for insensitivity to initiation (Hopler, 1998). Blasting agents
typically possess a velocity of detonation lower than that of a high explosive. They also
re less stringent storage and transportation standards than do high explosives because
they are less hazardous during handling and transportation.
• 5.3.2.2 Detonation Zone Effects.
During an explosion, the chemical reaction of an explosive produces a detonation
reaction that propagates through the charge and into the surrounding rock. Figure 5.2
(Dick et al., 1983) illustrates the explosion and detonation pressures when the
detonation or reaction zone has reached the midpoint of the explosive mass
(borehole charges are typically long, cylindrical columns). The primary reaction occurs
in the zone bounded by the shock front and the Chapman-Jourguet (C-J) plane
shown in the diagram. This zone is very narrow in a high explosive that has a small
critical diameter (smallest diameter of a cartridge that can be detonated)
5.3.2.3 Chemical Reactions of Explosives.
Explosives consist of oxidizers and fuels mixed together in a proper proportion to
produce the desired violent chemical reaction. Relatively inexpensive oxidizers and
fuels are generally used to produce a cost-efficient mixture. Most ingredients used
consist of the elements oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon, plus certain metallic
elements (aluminum, magnesium, sodium, calcium, etc.). The primary criterion of
efficient energy release is the oxygen balance. Zero oxygen balance point at which
an explosive has sufficient oxygen to completely oxidize all the contained fuels but no
excess oxygen to react with the contained nitrogen (Clark, 1968, 1987). is the There
are two reasons for the careful balancing of the oxygen-fuel mixture: (1) The energy
output is optimized, and (2) the formation of toxic chemical gases such as oxides of
nitrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, and others is minimized. An equation can be
written for the oxygen balance in an explosive reaction if the starting and ending
products are known.
• 5.3.3 Properties of Explosives
5.3.3.1 Classification Schemes.
Several methods of classifying explosives are commonly used. First, government
agencies have designated classes for various explosive mixtures. The current classes
are as follows (Hopler, 1998)
1. Division 1.1 or 1.2 (formerly called Class A) explosives possess detonation or other
maximum hazard properties and must be handled with utmost care. Dynamite,
nitroglycerine, and blasting caps are all in this category with little chance of
detonation 1.1, 1.2, or 1.3 explosive components, but in restricted quantities
2. Division 1.3 (formerly Class B) explosives present a flammability hazard .
3. Division 1.4 (formerly Class C) explosive mixtures contain some Division .
4. Division 1.5 (blasting agents) includes substances that have a mass explosion
hazard but are so insensitive that they present very little probability of initiation or
transition from deflagration to detonation during transit.
• 5.3.3.2 Ingredients.
As mentioned in Section 5.3.2.3, the principal components of an explosive are
fuels and oxidizers. The most common fuels used are fuel oil, carbon,
aluminum, and trinitrotoluene (TNT). Oxidizers include ammonium nitrate (AN),
sodium nitrate, and calcium carbonate. Most commercial explosives today
use AN as the base and the primary oxidizer. Other chemical substances may
be added to affect the strength. Other sensitivity, water resistance, stability, or
other important parameters of the explosive. These include sensitizers
(nitroglycerine, TNT, nitrostarch, aluminum, etc.), energizers (aluminum or other
metal powders), and miscellaneous agents (water, thickeners, gelatinizers,
emulsifiers, stabilizers, flame retardants, dyes, etc.)