THEORY OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR:

Cardinal Utility Analysis/Approach:

Definition and Explanation:
Human wants are unlimited and they are of different
intensity. The means at the disposal of a man are not
only scarce but they have alternative uses. As a result of
scarcity of recourses, the consumer cannot satisfy all
his wants. He has to choose as to which want is to be
satisfied first and which afterward if the recourses
permit. The consumer is confronted in making a choice.
 For example, a man is thirsty. He goes to the market
and satisfies his thirst by purchasing coca cola
instead of tea.
 We are here to examine the economic forces which
make him purchase a particular commodity. The
answer is simple.
 The consumer buys a commodity because it gives
him satisfaction. In technical term, a consumer
purchases a commodity because it has utility for him.
We now examine the tools which are used in the
analyzes of consumer behavior.
CONCEPT OF UTILITY:
 Jevon (1835 -1882) was the first economist who
introduces the concept of utility in economics.
According to him:

 "Utility is the basis on which the demand of an

individual for a commodity depends upon".

 Utility is defined as: "The power of a commodity or

service to satisfy human want".

 Utility is thus the satisfaction which is derived by

the consumer by consuming the goods.
 For example, cloth has a utility for us because we
can wear it. Pen has a utility who can write with it. The
utility is subjective in nature. It differs from person to
person. The utility of a bottle of wine is zero for a
person who is non-drinker while it has a very high
utility for a drinker.

 Here it may be noted that the term ‘utility’ may not

be confused with pleasure or usefulness which a
commodity gives to an individual. Utility is a
subjective satisfaction which consumer gets from
consuming any good or service.
 For example, poison is injurious to health but it
gives subjective satisfaction to a person who
wishes to die. We can say that utility is value
neutral
ASSUMPTIONS OF CARDINAL UTILITY ANALYSIS:
 The main assumption or premises on which the cardinal utility
analysis rests are as under.
 (i) Rationality. The consumer is rational. He seeks to maximize
satisfaction from the limited income which is at his disposal.

 (ii) Utility is cardinally measurable. The utility can be

measured in cardinal numbers such as 1, 3, 10, 15, etc. The utility
is expressed in imaginary cardinal numbers tells us a great deal
about the preference of the consumer for a good.

 (iii) Marginal utility of money remains constant. Another

important premise of cardinal utility of money spent on the
purchase of a good or service should remain constant.

 (iv) Diminishing marginal utility. It is also assumed that the

marginal utility obtained from the consumption of a good
diminishes continuously as its consumption is increased.
Criticism:

Pareto, an Italian Economist, severely criticized the

concept of cardinal utility. He stated that utility is
neither quantifiable nor addible. It can, however be
compared. He suggested that the concept of utility
should be replaced by the scale of preference. Hicks
and Allen, following the footsteps of Pareto,
introduced the technique of indifference curves. The
cardinal utility approach is thus replaced by ordinal
utility function.
TOTAL UTILITY AND MARGINAL UTILITY:
Difference between Total Utility and Marginal Utility:

People buy goods because they get satisfaction from them.

This satisfaction which the consumer experiences when he
consumes a good, when measured as number of units is called
utility.

It is here to necessary to make a distinction between total utility

and marginal utility.
Total Utility (TU):

Definition and Explanation:

"Total utility is the total satisfaction obtained from all units of a

particular commodity consumed over a period of time".
For example, a person consumes eggs and gains
50 units of total utility. This total utility is the sum
of utilities from the successive units (30 units from
the first egg, 15 units from the second and 5 units
from the third egg).

Summing up total utility is the amount of

satisfaction (utility) obtained from consuming a
particular quantity of a good or service within a
given time period. It is the sum of marginal utilities
of each successive unit of consumption.

Formula:
TUx = ∑MUx
 MARGINAL UTILITY (MU):
Definition and Explanation:
"Marginal utility means an additional or incremental utility.
Marginal utility is the change in the total utility that results
from unit one unit change in consumption of the
commodity within a given period of time".
For example: when a person increases the consumption
of eggs from one egg to two eggs, the total utility
increases from 30 units to 45 units. The marginal utility
here would be the15 units of the 2nd egg consumed.
Marginal utility, thus, can also be described as difference
between total utility derived from one level of
consumption and total utility derived from another level of
consumption.
Formula:
MU = ∆TU
∆Q
It may here be noted that as a person consumes
more and more units of a commodity, the marginal
utility of the additional units begins to diminish but
the total utility goes on increasing at a diminishing
rate.
When the marginal utility comes to zero or we say
the point of satiety is reached, the total utility is the
maximum. If consumption is increased further from
this point of satiety, the marginal utility becomes
negative and total utility begins to diminish.
The relationship between total utility and marginal
utility is now explained with the help of following
schedule and a graph.
Schedule:

Units of Apples Consumed

Total Utility in units Per Day Marginal Utility in units Per Day
Daily

1 7 7

2 11 4 (11-7)

3 13 2 (13-11)

4 14 1 (14-13)

5 14 0 (14-14)

6 13 -1 (13-14)
 The above table shows that when a person consumes no
apples, he gets no satisfaction. His total utility is zero. In
case he consumes one apple a day, he gains seven units of
satisfaction. His total utility is 7 and his marginal utility is
also 7.
 In case he consumes second apple, he gains extra 4 units
(MU). Thus given him a total utility of 11 units from two
apples. His marginal utility has gone down from 7 units to 4
units because he has a less craving for the second apple.
 Same is the case with the consumption of third apple. The
marginal utility has now fallen to 2 units while the total utility
of three apples has increased to 13 units (7 + 4 + 2). In case
the consumer takes fifth apple, his marginal utility falls to
zero units and if he consumes sixth apple also, the total
showing total utility and marginal utility is plotted in figure
below:
Diagram/Curve:
(i) The total utility curves starts at the origin as
zero consumption of apples yield zero utility.
(ii) The TU curve reaches at its maximum or a peak
of M when MU is zero.
(iii) The MU curve falls through the graph. A special
point occurs when the consumer consumes fifth
apple. He gains no marginal utility from it. After
this point, marginal utility becomes negative.
 LAW OF DIMINISHING MARGINAL UTILITY:
Definition and Statement of the Law:

The law of diminishing marginal utility describes a familiar and

fundamental tendency of human behavior. The law of
diminishing marginal utility states that:
“As a consumer consumes more and more units of a specific
commodity, the utility from the successive units goes on
diminishing”.
Mr. H. Gossen, a German economist, was first to explain this
law in 1854. Alfred Marshal later on restated this law in the
following words:
“The additional benefit which a person derives from an
increase of his stock of a thing diminishes with every increase
in the stock that already has”.
Law is based upon Three Facts:

The law of diminishing marginal utility is based upon

three facts. First, total wants of a man are unlimited but
each single want can be satisfied. As a man gets more
and more units of a commodity, the desire of his that
good goes on falling. A point is reached when the
consumer no longer wants any more units of that
good. Secondly, different goods are not perfect
substitutes for each other in the satisfaction of various
particular wants. As such the marginal utility will
decline as the consumer gets additional units of a
specific good. Thirdly, the marginal utility of money is
constant given the consumer’s wealth.
Explanation and Example of Law of Diminishing
Marginal Utility:

This law can be explained by taking a very simple

example. Suppose a man is very thirsty.
He goes to the market and buys one glass of water. The
glass of water gives him immense pleasure or we say the
first glass of water has great utility for him.
If he takes second glass of water after that, the utility will
be less than that of the first one. It is because the edge of
his thirst has been blunted to a great extent. If he drinks
third glass of water, the utility of the third glass will be
less than that of second and so on.
The utility goes on diminishing with the consumption
of every successive glass of water till it drops down
to zero.
This is the point of satiety. It is the position of
consumer’s equilibrium or maximum satisfaction.
If the consumer is forced further to take a glass of
water, it leads to disutility causing total utility to
decline. The marginal utility will become negative.
A rational consumer will stop taking water at the point
at which marginal utility becomes negative even if the
good is free. In short, the more we have of a thing,
ceteris paribus, the less we want still more of that, or
to be more precise.
“In given span of time, the more of a specific product
a consumer obtains, the less anxious he is to get
more units of that product” or we can say that as
more units of a good are consumed, additional units
will provide less additional satisfaction than previous
units.
The following table and graph will make the law of
diminishing marginal utility more clear.
Schedule of Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility:

Units Total Utility Marginal Utility

1st glass 20 20

2nd glass 32 12

3rd glass 40 8

4th glass 42 2

5th glass 42 0

6th glass 39 -3
 From the above table, it is clear that in a given span
of time, the first glass of water to a thirsty man gives
20 units of utility.
 When he takes second glass of water, the marginal
utility goes on down to 12 units;
 When he consumes fifth glass of water, the marginal
utility drops down to zero and if the consumption of
water is forced further from this point, the utility
changes into disutility (-3).
 Here it may be noted that the utility of then
successive units consumed diminishes not because
they are not of inferior in quality than that of others.
 We assume that all the units of a commodity
consumed are exactly alike. The utility of the
successive units falls simply because they happen to
be consumed afterwards.
Curve/Diagram of Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility:

The law of diminishing marginal utility can also be represented by a diagram.

In the figure (2.2), along OX we measure units of a
commodity consumed and along OY is shown the
marginal utility derived from them. The marginal
utility of the first glass of water is called initial
utility. It is equal to 20 units.
The MU of the 5th glass of water is zero. It is
called satiety point. The MU of the 6th glass of
water is negative (-3).
The MU curve here lies below the OX axis. The
utility curve MM/ falls left from left down to the
right showing that the marginal utility of the
success units of glasses of water is falling.
 ASSUMPTIONS OF LAW OF DIMINISHING
MARGINAL UTILITY:
The law of diminishing marginal utility is true under
certain assumptions. These assumptions are as under:
(i) Rationality: In the cardinal utility analysis, it is
assumed that the consumer is rational. He aims at
maximization of utility subject to availability of his
income.

(ii) Constant marginal utility of money: It is assumed in

the theory that the marginal utility of money based for
purchasing goods remains constant. If the marginal
utility of money changes with the increase or decrease in
income, it then cannot yield correct measurement of the
marginal utility of the good.
(iii) Diminishing marginal utility: Another important
assumption of utility analysis is that the utility gained from
the successive units of a commodity diminishes in a given
time period.

(iv) Utility is additive: It is assumed that the utilities of

different commodities are independent. The total utility of
each commodity is additive.

(v) Consumption to be continuous: It is assumed in this

law that the consumption of a commodity should be
continuous. If there is interval between the consumption of
the same units of the commodity, the law may not hold
good. For instance, if you take one glass of water in the
morning and the 2nd at noon, the marginal utility of the
2nd glass of water may increase.
(vi) Suitable quantity: It is also assumed that the
commodity consumed is taken in suitable and reasonable
units. If the units are too small, then the marginal utility
instead of falling may increase up to a few units.

(vii) Character of the consumer does not change: The law

holds true if there is no change in the character of the
consumer. For example, if a consumer develops a taste for
wine, the additional units of wine may increase the
marginal utility to a drunkard.

(viii) No change to fashion, Customs and tastes: If there is

a sudden change in fashion or customs or taste of a
consumer, it can than make the law inoperative.

(ix) No change in the price of the commodity: There

should be any change in the price of that commodity as
more units are consumed.
LIMITATIONS/EXCEPTIONS OF LAW OF
DIMINISHING MARGINAL UTILITY:
There are some exceptions or limitations to the
law of diminishing utility.
(i) Case of intoxicants: Consumption of liquor
defies the low for a short period. The more a
person drinks, the more likes it. However, this is
truer only initially. A stage comes when a drunkard
too starts taking less and less liquor and
eventually stops it.

(ii) Rare collection: If there are only two diamonds

in the world, the possession of 2nd diamond will
push up the marginal utility.
(iii) Application to money: The law equally holds good
for money. It is true that more money the man has, the
greedier he is to get additional units of it. However, the
truth is that the marginal utility of money declines with
richness but never falls to zero.

Summing up, we can say that the law of diminishing

utility, like other laws of Economics, is simply a
statement of tendency. It holds good provided other
factors remain constant.
 PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE OF LAW OF
DIMINISHING MARGINAL UTILITY:
The law of diminishing utility has great practical importance in
economics. The law of demand, the theory of consumer’s
surplus, and the equilibrium in the distribution of expenditure
are derived from the law of diminishing marginal utility.
(i) Basis of the law of demand: The law of diminishing marginal
utility and the law of demand are very closely related to each
other.
In fact they law of diminishing marginal utility, the more we have
of a thing, and the less we want additional increment of it. In
other words, we can say that as a person gets more and more
of a particular commodity, the marginal utility of the
successive units begins to diminish.
So every consumer while buying a particular commodity
compares the marginal utility of the commodity and the price
of the commodity which he has to pay.
If the marginal utility of the commodity is higher than
that of price, he purchases that commodity.

As he buys more and more, the marginal utility of the

successive units begins to diminish.

Then he pays fewer amounts for the successive

units. He tries to equate at every step the marginal
utility and the price of the commodity, he must lower
its price so that the consumers are induced to buy
large quantities and this is what is explained in the
law of demand.

From this, we conclude that the law of demand and

the law of diminishing are very closely inter-related.
(ii) Consumer’s surplus concept: The theory of
consumer’s surplus is also based on the law of
diminishing marginal utility.

A consumer while purchasing the commodity compares

the utility of the commodity with that of the price which
he has to pay.

In most of the cases, he is willing to pay more than what

he actually pays. The excess of the price which he would
be willing to pay rather than to go without the thing over
that which he actually does pay is the economic measure
of this surplus satisfaction. It is in fact difference
between the total utility and the actually money spent.
(iii) Importance to the consumer: A consumer in order to get the
maximum satisfaction from his relatively scarce resources
distributes his income on commodities and services in such a way
that the marginal utility from all the uses are the same. Here again the
concept of marginal utility helps the consumer in arranging his scale
of preference for the commodities and services.

iv) Importance to finance minister: Sometimes it is pointed out that

the law of diminishing marginal utility does not apply on money.
As a person to collect money the desires to accumulate more money
increases. This view is superficial. It is true that wealth is acquired for
the procurement of goods and services and man is always anxious in
getting more and more of money.

But what about the utility of money to him? Is it not a fact that as a
person gets more and more wealth, its utility progressively
decreases, though it does not reach to zero?
For example, a person who earns Tk 90,000 per
month attaches less importance to Tk 10. But a
man who gets Tk 1000 per month, the value of Tk
10 to him is very high.

A finance minister knowing this fact that the utility

of money to a rich man is high and to poor man
low bases the system of taxation in such a way
that the rich persons are taxed at a progressive
rate.

The system of modern taxation is therefore, based

on the law of diminishing marginal utility.
 LAW OF EQUI-MARGINAL UTILITY:
Other Names of this Law: Law of Substitution OR Law of
Maximum Satisfaction OR Law of
Indifference OR Proportion Rule OR Gossen's Second Law.
In the cardinal utility analysis, the principle of equal
marginal utility occupies an important place.
Definition and Statement of Law of Equi-Marginal Utility:

The law of equi-marginal utility is simply an extension

of law of diminishing marginal utility to two or more than
two commodities. The law of equilibrium utility is known,
by various names. It is named as the Law of Substitution,
the Law of Maximum Satisfaction, the Law of Indifference,
the Proportionate Rule and the Gossen’s Second Law.
In cardinal utility analysis, this law is stated by Lipsey in
the following words:
“The household maximizing the utility will so allocate the
expenditure between commodities that the utility of the
last penny spent on each item is equal”.
As we know, every consumer has unlimited wants.
However, the income this disposal at any time is limited.

The consumer is, therefore, faced with a choice among

many commodities that he can and would like to pay. He,
therefore, consciously or unconsciously compress the
satisfaction which he obtains from the purchase of the
commodity and the price which he pays for it. If he thinks
the utility of the commodity is greater or at-least equal to
the loss of utility of money price, he buys that commodity.
As he buys more and more of that commodity,
the utility of the successive units begins to
diminish. He stops further purchase of the
commodity at a point where the marginal utility
of the commodity and its price are just equal. If
he pushes the purchase further from his point of
equilibrium, then the marginal utility of the
commodity will be less than that of price and the
household will be loser. A consumer will be in
equilibrium with a single commodity
symbolically:
MUx = Px
 A prudent consumer in order to get the maximum
satisfaction from his limited means compares not
only the utility of a particular commodity and the
price but also the utility of the other commodities
which he can buy with his scarce resources.

 If he finds that a particular expenditure in one use

is yielding less utility than that of other, he will tie
to transfer a unit of expenditure from the
commodity yielding less marginal utility.

 The consumer will reach his equilibrium position

when it will not be possible for him to increase the
total utility by uses. The position of equilibrium
will be reached when the marginal utility of each
good is in proportion to its price and the ratio of
the prices of all goods is equal to the ratio of their
marginal utilities.
The consumer will maximize total utility from his
income when the utility from the last Tk spent on
each good is the same. Algebraically, this is:
MUa / Pa = MUb / Pb = MUc = Pc = MUn = Pn
Here: (a), (b), (c)…. (n) are various goods
consumed.
 ASSUMPTIONS OF LAW OF EQUI-MARGINAL
UTILITY:
The main assumptions of the law of equi-marginal utility
are as under.
(i) Independent utilities. The marginal utilities of different
commodities are independent of each other and diminish
with more and more purchases.

(ii) Constant marginal utility of money. The marginal utility

of money remains constant to the consumer as he spends
more and more of it on the purchase of goods.

(iii) Utility is cardinally measurable.

(iv) Every consumer is rational in the purchase of goods.

EXAMPLE AND EXPLANATION OF LAW OF EQUI-
MARGINAL UTILITY:
The doctrine of equi-marginal utility can be
explained by taking an example. Suppose
a person has $5 with him whom he wishes
to spend on two commodities, tea and
cigarettes. The marginal utility derived
from both these commodities is as under:
Schedule:

Units of Money MU of Tea MU of Cigarettes

1 10 12

2 8 10

3 6 8

4 4 6

5 2 3

$5 Total Utility = 30 Total Utility = 39

A rational consumer would like to get maximum
satisfaction from $5.00. He can spend money in
three ways:
(i) $5 may be spent on tea only.
(ii) $5 may be utilized for the purchase of
cigarettes only.
(iii) Some rupees may be spent on the purchase of
tea and some on the purchase of cigarettes.

If the prudent consumer spends $5 on the

purchase of tea, he gets 30 utility. If he spends
$5 on the purchase of cigarettes, the total utility
derived is 39 which are higher than tea. In order
to make the best of the limited resources, he
adjusts his expenditure
(i)By spending $4 on tea and $1 on cigarettes, he gets 40 utility
(10+8+6+4+12 = 40).

(ii) By spending $3 on tea and $2 on cigarettes, he derives 46

utility (10+8+6+12+10 = 46).

(iii) By spending $2 on tea and $3 on cigarettes, he gets 48 utility

(10+8+12+10+8 = 48).

(iv) By spending $1 on tea and $4 on cigarettes, he gets 46 utility

(10+12+10+8+6 = 46).

The sensible consumer will spend $2 on tea and $3 on cigarettes

and will get maximum satisfaction. When he spends $2 on tea
and $3 on cigarette, the marginal utilities derived from both
these commodities is equal to 8. When the marginal utilities of
the two commodities are equalizes, the total utility is then
maximum, i.e., 48 as is clear from the schedule given above.
Curve/Diagram of Law of Equi-Marginal Utility:
The law of equi-marginal utility can be explained with the help of diagrams.
In the figure 2.3 MU is the marginal utility curve for tea and
KL of cigarettes. When a consumer spends OP amount ($2)
on tea and OC ($3) on cigarettes, the marginal utility derived
from the consumption of both the items (Tea and Cigarettes)
is equal to 8 units (EP = NC). The consumer gets the
maximum utility when he spends $2 on tea and $3 on
cigarettes and by no other alternation in the expenditure.
We now assume that the consumer spends $1 on tea
(OC/ amount) and $4 (OQ/) on cigarettes. If CQ/ more
amounts are spent cigarettes, the added utility is equal to
the area CQ/ N/N. On the other hand, the expenditure on tea
falls from OP amount ($2) to OC/ amount ($1). There is a loss
of utility equal to the area C/PEE. The loss is utility (tea) is
greater than that the loss in utility (tea) is maximum
satisfaction except the combination of expenditure of $2 on
tea and $3 on cigarettes.
This law is known as the Law of maximum
Satisfaction because a consumer tries to get the maximum
satisfaction from his limited resources by so planning his
expenditure that the marginal utility of a rupee spent in one
use is the same as the marginal utility of a rupee spent on
another use.

It is known as the Law of Substitution because consumer

continuous substituting one good for another till he gets
the maximum satisfaction.

It is called the Law of Indifference because the maximum

satisfaction has been achieved by equating the marginal
utility in all the uses. The consumer than becomes
indifferent to readjust his expenditure unless some change
fakes place in his income or the prices of the commodities,
etc.
 LIMITATIONS/EXCEPTIONS OF LAW OF EQUI-
MARGINAL UTILITY:
(i)
Effect on fashions and customs: The law of equi-marginal utility may
become inoperative if people forced by fashions and customs spend
money on the purchase of those commodities which they clearly
knows yield less utility but they cannot transfer the unit of money from
the less advantageous uses to the more advantageous uses because
they are forced by the customs of the country.

(ii) Ignorance or carelessness: Sometimes people due to their

ignorance of price or carelessness to weigh the utility of the purchased
commodity do not obtain the maximum advantage by equating the
marginal utility in all the uses.

(iii) Indivisible units: If the unit of expenditure is not divisible, then

again the law may become inoperative.

(iv) Freedom of choice: If there is no perfect freedom between various

alternatives, the operation of law may be impeded.
IMPORTANCE OF LAW OF EQUI-MARGINAL
UTILITY:
 The law of equi-marginal utility is of great
practical importance. The application of the
principle of substitution extends over almost
every field of economic enquiry.

 Every consumer consciously trying to get the

maximum satisfaction from his limited
resources acts upon this principle of
substitution. Same is the case with the
producer. In the field of exchange and in theory
of distribution too, this law plays a vital role. In
short, despite its limitation, the law of maximum
satisfaction is meaningful general statement of
how consumers behave.
In addition to its application to consumption, it applies
equally to the theory of production and theory of
distribution. In the theory of production, it is applied on
the substitution of various factors of production to the
point where marginal return from all the factors are equal.
The government can also use this analysis for evaluation
of its different economic prices.
The equal marginal rule also guides an individual in the
spending of his saving on different types of assets. The
law of equal marginal utility also guides an individual in
the allocation of his time between work and leisure. In
short, despite limitations the law of substitution is applied
to all problems of allocation of scarce resources.
 DERIVATION OF THE DEMAND CURVE IN TERMS
OF UTILITY ANALYSIS:
Dr. Alfred Marshal was of the view that the law of
demand and so the demand curve can be derived
with the help of utility analysis.
He explained the derivation of law of demand:
(i) In the case of a single commodity and (ii) in the
case of two or more than two commodities. In the
utility analysis of demand, the following
assumptions are made:
Assumptions:

(i) Utility is cardinally measurable.

(ii) Utilities of different commodities are

independent.

(iii) The marginal utility of money to the consumer

remains constant.

(Iv) Utility gained from the successive units of a

commodity diminishes.
(1) DERIVATION OF DEMAND CURVE IN THE
CASE OF A SINGLE COMMODITY (LAW OF
DIMINISHING MARGINAL UTILITY):
Dr. Alfred Marshall derived the demand curve with
the aid of law of diminishing marginal utility. The
law of diminishing marginal utility states that as
the consumer purchases more and more units of a
commodity, he gets less and less utility from the
successive units of the expenditure. At the same
time, as the consumer purchases more and more
units of one commodity, then lesser and lesser
amount of money is left with him to buy other
goods and services.
A rational consumer, before, while purchasing a
commodity compares the price of the commodity
which he has to pay with the utility of a commodity he
receives from it. So long as the marginal utility of a
commodity is higher than its price (MUx > Px), the
consumer would demand more and more units of it till
its marginal utility is equal to its price MUx = Px or the
equilibrium condition is established.

To put it differently, as the consumer consumes more

and more units of a commodity, its marginal utility
goes on diminishing. So it is only at a diminishing
price at which the consumer would like to demand
more and more units of a commodity.
Diagram/Curve:
In fig. 2.4 (a) the MUx is negatively slopped. It shows
that as the consumer acquires larger quantities of
good x, its marginal utility diminishes. Consequently
at diminishing price, the quantity demanded of the
good x increases as is shown in fig. 2.4 (b).

At X1, quantity the marginal utility of a good is MU1.

This is equal to P1 by definition. The consumer here
demands OX1 quantity of the commodity at P1 price. In
the same way X2 quantity of the good is equal to P2.
Here at P2 price, the consumer will buy OX2 quantity of
commodity. At X3 quantity the marginal utility is MU3,
which is equal to P3. At P3, the consumer will buy
OX3 quantity and so on.
We conclude from above, that as the purchase of
the units of commodity X are increased, its
marginal utility diminishes. So at diminishing
price, the quantity demanded of good X increases
as is evident from fig. 2.4 (b). The rational
supports the notion of down slopping demand
curve that when price falls, other things remaining
the same, the quantity demanded of a good
increases and vice versa. (The negative section of
the MU curve does not form part of the demand
curve, since negative quantities do not make
sense in economics).
 (2) DERIVATION OF THE DEMAND CURVE IN THE
CASE OF TWO OR MORE THAN TWO
COMMODITIES (LAW OF EQUI-MARGINAL
UTILITY):
The law of diminishing marginal utility can also be
applied in case of two or more than two goods. When
a consumer has to spend a certain given income on a
number of goods, he attains maximum satisfaction
when the marginal utilities of the goods are
proportional to their prices as stated below.
MUx / Px = MUy / Py = ……….. MUn / Pn
Derivation of Demand Curve:

In the fig. 2.5 (a), (b) and (c) given the money income,
the price of X commodity (Px) and the price of Y
commodity (Py) and constant marginal utility of
money (MUm), the demand curve derived is
illustrated. The consumer allocates his money
income between X and Y commodities to get
OQ1 units of good X and OY unit of good Y
commodities because the combination
correspondence to:
MUx / Px = MUy / Py = MUm
At the OM level (constant).
Diagram/Curve:
Let us assume that money income and price of Y
commodity remain constant but the price of X
commodity decreases. As a result of this money
expenditure on commodity X rises resulting MUx /
Px curve to shift towards right. The consumer now
allocates his income to OQ2 quantity of X commodity
and Oy quantity of Y commodity because the
combinations correspondence to
MUx / Px = MUy / Py = MUm
(constant) at OM level.
Thus in response to decrease in the price from Px to
Px1, the quantity demanded of a good X increases
from OQ1 to OQ2. The DD is a negatively sloped
demand curve.