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Primitive Roots

This document discusses several topics in number theory including prime numbers, relatively prime numbers, the greatest common divisor (GCD), Fermat's theorem, the Euler totient function φ(n), Euler's theorem, and primitive roots. It defines these terms and concepts and provides examples to illustrate them. The key ideas are that prime numbers only have divisors of 1 and themselves, two numbers are relatively prime if they share no common divisors other than 1, and the Euler totient function counts the number of numbers relatively prime to n that are less than n.

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Rameez Qureshi
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406 views11 pages

Primitive Roots

This document discusses several topics in number theory including prime numbers, relatively prime numbers, the greatest common divisor (GCD), Fermat's theorem, the Euler totient function φ(n), Euler's theorem, and primitive roots. It defines these terms and concepts and provides examples to illustrate them. The key ideas are that prime numbers only have divisors of 1 and themselves, two numbers are relatively prime if they share no common divisors other than 1, and the Euler totient function counts the number of numbers relatively prime to n that are less than n.

Uploaded by

Rameez Qureshi
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Introduction to Number

Theory
Chapter 8
Modular Arithmetic
Remainder of a Large Number
Prime Numbers
 Prime numbers only have divisors of 1 and self

 They cannot be written as a product of other numbers


 Note 1 is a non prime number

 List of prime number less than 200 is:

2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59
61 67 71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127
131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173 179 181 191
193 197 199
Relatively Prime Numbers &
GCD
 Two numbers a and b are relatively prime if
have no common divisors apart from 1

 e.g. 8 & 15 are relatively prime since factors of 8 are


1,2,4,8 and of 15 are 1,3,5,15 and 1 is the only
common factor

 Conversely can determine the greatest common


divisor by comparing their prime factorizations
and using least powers
Fermat's Theorem
 ap-1 = 1 (mod p)

 where p is prime and gcd(a,p)=1

 Useful in public key and primality testing.


Euler Totient Function ø(n)

 When doing arithmetic modulo n


 Complete set of residues is: 0..n-1

 Reduced set of residues is those numbers


(residues) which are relatively prime to n
 e.g. for n=10,
 complete set of residues is {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
 reduced set of residues is {1,3,7,9}

 Number of elements in reduced set of residues


is called the Euler Totient Function ø(n)
Euler Totient Function ø(n)
 To compute ø(n) need to count number of
residues to be excluded
 In general need prime factorization, but
 for p (p prime) ø(p) = p-1
 for p.q (p,q prime) ø(pq) =(p-1)x(q-1)

 e.g.
ø(37) = 36
ø(21) = (3–1)x(7–1) = 2x6 = 12
Euler's Theorem
 A generalisation of Fermat's Theorem

aø(n) = 1 (mod n)

 For any a,n where gcd(a,n)=1 and 0 < a < n

 e.g.
a = 3;n = 10; ø(10) = 4;
hence 34 = 81 = 1 mod 10
a = 2;n = 11; ø(11) = 10;
hence 210 = 1024 = 1 mod 11
Primitive Roots
 From Euler’s theorem have aø(n)modn=1
 Consider am =1 (mod n), GCD(a,n)=1
 must exist for m = ø(n) but may be smaller
 once powers reach m, cycle will repeat

 If smallest is m = ø(n) then a is called a


primitive root
 If p is prime, then successive powers of a
"generate" the group mod p

 These are useful but relatively hard to find


Primitive Roots contd.
 Powers of integer modulo 19

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