Introduction to Hydraulics

of Open Channels

By
Parveen Kumar
 Topics to be covered
 Basic Concepts

 Conservation Laws

 Critical Flows

 Uniform Flows

 Gradually Varied Flows

 Rapidly Varied Flows

 Unsteady Flows
 Basic Concepts
 Open Channel flows deal with flow of water in open channels

 Pressure is atmospheric at the water surface and the

pressure is equal to the depth of water at any section

 Pressure head is the ratio of pressure and the specific weight

of water

 Elevation head or the datum head is the height of the

section under consideration above a datum

 Velocity head (=v2/2g) is due to the average velocity of flow

in that vertical section
 Basic Concepts Cont…

Total head =p/ + v2/2g + z

Pressure head = p/

Velocity head =v2/2g

Datum head = z

The flow of water in an open channel is mainly due to head

gradient and gravity

Open Channels are mainly used to transport water for

irrigation, industry and domestic water supply
 Conservation Laws
The main conservation laws used in open channels are

Conservation Laws

Conservation of Mass

Conservation of Momentum

Conservation of Energy
 Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Mass
In any control volume consisting of the fluid ( water) under
consideration, the net change of mass in the control volume
due to inflow and out flow is equal to the the net rate of
change of mass in the control volume

This leads to the classical continuity equation balancing the

inflow, out flow and the storage change in the control
volume.

Sincewe are considering only water which is treated as

incompressible, the density effect can be ignored
Conservation of Momentum and energy
Conservation of Momentum
This law states that the rate of change of momentum in the
control volume is equal to the net forces acting on the
control volume

Sincethe water under consideration is moving, it is acted

upon by external forces

Essentially this leads to the Newton’s second law

Conservation of Energy
This law states that neither the energy can be created or
destroyed. It only changes its form.
 Conservation of Energy
Mainly in open channels the energy will be in the form of potential energy
and kinetic energy

Potential energy is due to the elevation of the water parcel while the
kinetic energy is due to its movement

Inthe context of open channel flow the total energy due these factors
between any two sections is conserved

Thisconservation of energy principle leads to the classical Bernoulli’s

equation
P/γ + v2/2g + z = Constant

When used between two sections this equation has to account for the
energy loss between the two sections which is due to the resistance to the
flow by the bed shear etc.
 Types of Open Channel Flows
Depending on the Froude number (Fr) the flow in an open
channel is classified as Sub critical flow, Super Critical
flow, and Critical flow, where Froude number can be defined
as F  V
r
gy

Open channel flow

Sub-critical flow Critical flow Super critical flow

Fr<1 Fr=1 Fr>1

Types of Open Channel Flow Cont...

Open Channel Flow

Unsteady Steady

Varied Uniform Varied

Gradually Gradually

Rapidly Rapidly
 Types of Open Channel Flow Cont…
 Steady Flow
Flow is said to be steady when discharge does not
change along the course of the channel flow

 Unsteady Flow
Flow is said to be unsteady when the discharge
changes with time

 Uniform Flow
Flow is said to be uniform when both the depth and
discharge is same at any two sections of the channel
 Types of Open Channel Cont…
 Gradually Varied Flow
Flow is said to be gradually varied when ever the
depth changes gradually along the channel

 Rapidly varied flow

Whenever the flow depth changes rapidly along the
channel the flow is termed rapidly varied flow

 Spatially varied flow

Whenever the depth of flow changes gradually due
to change in discharge the flow is termed spatially
varied flow
 Types of Open Channel Flow cont…
 Unsteady Flow
Whenever the discharge and depth of flow changes
with time, the flow is termed unsteady flow

Types of possible flow

Steady uniform flow Steady non-uniform flow Unsteady non-uniform flow

kinematic wave diffusion wave dynamic wave

 Definitions
Specific Energy
It is defined as the energy acquired by the water at a
section due to its depth and the velocity with which it
is flowing

Specific Energy E is given by, E = y + v2/2g

Where y is the depth of flow at that section
and v is the average velocity of flow

Specific energy is minimum at critical

condition
 Definitions
Specific Force
It is defined as the sum of the momentum of the flow passing
through the channel section per unit time per unit weight of
water and the force per unit weight of water
F = Q2/gA +yA
 The specific forces of two sections are equal
provided that the external forces and the weight
effect of water in the reach between the two
sections can be ignored.

 At the critical state of flow the specific force is a

minimum for the given discharge.
 Critical Flow
Flow is critical when the specific energy is minimum.
Also whenever the flow changes from sub critical to
super critical or vice versa the flow has to go
through critical condition

figure is shown in next slide

Sub-critical flow-the depth of flow will be higher

whereas the velocity will be lower.

Super-critical flow-the depth of flow will be lower

but the velocity will be higher

Critical flow: Flow over a free over-fall

 Specific energy diagram

E=y
Depth of water Surface (y)

E-y curve

1
Emin

y1
C

Alternate Depths
yc

2
45°

2
Critical Depth
Specific Energy (E) y

Specific Energy Curve for a given discharge

 Characteristics of Critical Flow
Specific Energy (E = y+Q2/2gA2) is minimum

For Specific energy to be a minimum dE/dy = 0

dE Q 2 dA
 1 3 
dy gA dy

However, dA=Tdy, where T is the width of the

channel at the water surface, then applying dE/dy =
0, will result in following

Q 2Tc Ac Q2 Ac VC2
3
1  2 
gAc Tc gAc Tc g
 Characteristics of Critical Flow
 For a rectangular channel Ac /Tc=yc

 Following the derivation for a rectangular channel,

Vc
Fr  1
gy c
 The same principle is valid for trapezoidal and other
cross sections

 Critical flow condition defines an unique relationship

between depth and discharge which is very useful in the
design of flow measurement structures
 Uniform Flows
This is one of the most important concept in open channel
flows

The most important equation for uniform flow is Manning’s

equation given by
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V R S
n

Where R = the hydraulic radius = A/P

P = wetted perimeter = f(y, S0)
Y = depth of the channel bed
S0 = bed slope (same as the energy slope, Sf)
n = the Manning’s dimensional empirical constant
 Uniform Flows

Energy Grade Line 2

V12/2g 1

hf
Sf

v22/2g
y1

Control Volume

y2
So
1
z1

z2
Datum

Steady Uniform Flow in an Open Channel

 Uniform Flow
Example : Flow in an open channel

This concept is used in most of the open channel flow design

The uniform flow means that there is no acceleration to the

flow leading to the weight component of the flow being
balanced by the resistance offered by the bed shear

In terms of discharge the Manning’s equation is given by

1
Q  AR 2 / 3 S 1/ 2
n
 Uniform Flow
Thisis a non linear equation in y the depth of flow for which
most of the computations will be made

Derivation of uniform flow equation is given below, where

W sin  = weight component of the fluid mass in the

direction of flow

0 = bed shear stress

Px = surface area of the channel

 Uniform Flow
 The force balance equation can be written as

W sin    0 Px  0
 Or Ax sin    0 Px  0

A
 Or  0   sin 
P

 Now A/P is the hydraulic radius, R, and sinθ is

the slope of the channel S0
 Uniform Flow
 The shear stress can be expressed as
 0  c f  V 2 / 2
 Where cf is resistance coefficient, V is the mean
velocity ρ is the mass density
 Therefore the previous equation can be written as

V2 2g
 Or cf   RS 0 V RS 0  C RS 0
2 cf

 where C is Chezy’s constant

 For Manning’s equation
1.49 1 / 6
C R
n
 Gradually Varied Flow
Flow is said to be gradually varied whenever the depth of
flow changed gradually

The governing equation for gradually varied flow is given by

dy S 0  S f

dx 1  Fr 2

Where the variation of depth y with the channel distance x

is shown to be a function of bed slope S0, Friction Slope Sf
and the flow Froude number Fr.

This is a non linear equation with the depth varying as a

non linear function
Gradually Varied Flow
Energy-grade line (slope = Sf)

v2/2g
Water surface (slope = Sw)

Channel bottom (slope = So)

z

Datum

Total head at a channel section

 Gradually Varied Flow
Derivation of gradually varied flow is as follows…
 The conservation of energy at two sections of a
reach of length Δx, can be written as
2 2
V1 V2
y1   S 0 x  y 2   S f x
2g 2g
 Now, let y  y  y and V2
2
V1
2
d V 2 
2 1    x
2 g 2 g dx  2 g 

Then the above equation becomes

d V 2 
y  S 0 x  S f x   x
dx  2 g 
 Gradually Varied Flow
 Dividing through Δx and taking the limit as Δx
approaches zero gives us
dy d  V 2 
    S 0  S f
dx dx  2 g 
 After simplification,
dy S0  S f

 
dx 1  d V 2 / 2 g / dy

 Further simplification can be done in terms of

Froude number
d V 2  d  Q2 
    
2 
dy  2 g  dy  2 gA 
 Gradually Varied Flow
 After differentiating the right side of the previous
equation,
d  V   2Q dA
2 2
   3

dy  2 g  2 gA dy

 But dA/dy=T, and A/T=D, therefore,

d V 2   Q2
     Fr
2

dy  2 g  gA2 D
 Finally the general differential equation can be
written as
dy S 0  S f

dx 1  Fr 2
 Gradually Varied Flow
Numerical integration of the gradually varied flow equation
will give the water surface profile along the channel

Depending on the depth of flow where it lies when compared

with the normal depth and the critical depth along with the
bed slope compared with the friction slope different types of
profiles are formed such as M (mild), C (critical), S (steep)
profiles. All these have real examples.

M (mild)-If the slope is so small that the normal depth

(Uniform flow depth) is greater than critical depth for the
given discharge, then the slope of the channel is mild.
 Gradually Varied Flow
 C (critical)-if the slope’s normal depth equals its critical
depth, then we call it a critical slope, denoted by C

 S (steep)-if the channel slope is so steep that a normal

depth less than critical is produced, then the channel is
steep, and water surface profile designated as S
 Rapidly Varied Flow
 This flow has very pronounced curvature of the streamlines
 It is such that pressure distribution cannot be assumed to
be hydrostatic
 The rapid variation in flow regime often take place in short
span
 When rapidly varied flow occurs in a sudden-transition
structure, the physical characteristics of the flow are
basically fixed by the boundary geometry of the structure as
well as by the state of the flow
Examples:
 Channel expansion and cannel contraction

 Sharp crested weirs

 Broad crested weirs

 Unsteady flows
 When the flow conditions vary with respect to time, we call
it unsteady flows.

 Some terminologies used for the analysis of unsteady flows

are defined below:

 Wave: it is defined as a temporal or spatial variation of flow

depth and rate of discharge.

 Wave length: it is the distance between two adjacent wave

crests or trough

 Amplitude: it is the height between the maximum water

level and the still water level
 Unsteady flows definitions
 Wave celerity (c): relative velocity of a wave with respect
to fluid in which it is flowing with V

 Absolute wave velocity (Vw): velocity with respect to

fixed reference as given below

Vw  V  c

 Plus sign if the wave is traveling in the flow direction and

minus for if the wave is traveling in the direction opposite to
flow

 For shallow water waves c  gy0 where y0=undisturbed

flow depth.
 Unsteady flows examples
Unsteady flows occur due to following reasons:

1. Surges in power canals or tunnels

2. Surges in upstream or downstream channels produced by

starting or stopping of pumps and opening and closing of
control gates

3. Waves in navigation channels produced by the operation of

navigation locks

4. Flood waves in streams, rivers, and drainage channels due

to rainstorms and snowmelt

5. Tides in estuaries, bays and inlets

 Unsteady flows
 Unsteady flow commonly encountered in an open channels
and deals with translatory waves. Translatory waves is a
gravity wave that propagates in an open channel and
results in appreciable displacement of the water particles in
a direction parallel to the flow

 For purpose of analytical discussion, unsteady flow is

classified into two types, namely, gradually varied and
rapidly varied unsteady flow

 In gradually varied flow the curvature of the wave profile is

mild, and the change in depth is gradual

 In the rapidly varied flow the curvature of the wave profile

is very large and so the surface of the profile may become
virtually discontinuous.
 Unsteady flows cont…
 Continuity equation for unsteady flow in an open
channel V y y
D V  0
x x t

 For a rectangular channel of infinite width, may be

written
q y
 0
x t

 When the channel is to feed laterally with a

supplementary discharge of q’ per unit length, for
instance, into an area that is being flooded over a
dike
 Unsteady flows cont…
 The equation
Q A
  q'  0
x t

 The general dynamic equation for gradually

varied unsteady flow is given by:
y V V 1 V '
  0
x g x g t
Review of Hydraulics of
Pipe Flows
 Contents
 General introduction

 Energy equation

 Head loss equations

 Head discharge relationships

 Pipe transients flows through

pipe networks

 Solving pipe network problems

 General Introduction
 Pipe flows are mainly due to pressure difference between
two sections

 Here also the total head is made up of pressure head, datum

head and velocity head

 The principle of continuity, energy, momentum is also used

in this type of flow.

 For example, to design a pipe, we use the continuity and

energy equations to obtain the required pipe diameter

 Then applying the momentum equation, we get the forces

acting on bends for a given discharge
 General introduction
 In the design and operation of a pipeline, the main
considerations are head losses, forces and stresses
acting on the pipe material, and discharge.

 Head loss for a given discharge relates to flow

efficiency; i.e an optimum size of pipe will yield the
least overall cost of installation and operation for
the desired discharge.

 Choosing a small pipe results in low initial costs,

however, subsequent costs may be excessively
large because of high energy cost from large head
losses
 Energy equation
 The design of conduit should be such that it needs least
cost for a given discharge
 The hydraulic aspect of the problem require applying the
one dimensional steady flow form of the energy equation:

p1 V12 p2 V22
 1  z1  h p   2  z2  ht  hL
 2g  2g

Where p/ =pressure head

V2/2g =velocity head
z =elevation head
hp=head supplied by a pump
ht =head supplied to a turbine
hL =head loss between 1 and 2
 Energy equation

Energy Grade Line

Hydraulic Grade Line
z2
v2/2g

p/y
hp
z1

z
Pump
z=0 Datum

The Schematic representation of the energy equation

 Energy equation
Velocity head
 In V2/2g, the velocity V is the mean velocity in the
conduit at a given section and is obtained by
V=Q/A, where Q is the discharge, and A is the
cross-sectional area of the conduit.
 The kinetic energy correction factor is given by ,
and it is defines as, where u=velocity at any point
in the section 3
 u dA
 A
V 3A

  has minimum value of unity when the velocity is

uniform across the section
 Energy equation cont…
Velocity head cont…
  has values greater than unity depending on the degree of
velocity variation across a section
 For laminar flow in a pipe, velocity distribution is parabolic
across the section of the pipe, and  has value of 2.0
 However, if the flow is turbulent, as is the usual case for
water flow through the large conduits, the velocity is fairly
uniform over most of the conduit section, and  has value
near unity (typically: 1.04<  < 1.06).
 Therefore, in hydraulic engineering for ease of application
in pipe flow, the value of  is usually assumed to be unity,
and the velocity head is then simply V2/2g.
 Energy equation cont…
Pump or turbine head
 The head supplied by a pump is directly
related to the power supplied to the flow as
given below
P  Qh p

 Likewise if head is supplied to turbine, the

power supplied to the turbine will be
P  Qht
 These two equations represents the power
supplied directly or power taken out directly
from the flow
 Energy equation cont…
Head-loss term
 The head loss term hL accounts for the conversion
of mechanical energy to internal energy (heat),
when this conversion occurs, the internal energy is
not readily converted back to useful mechanical
energy, therefore it is called head loss

 Head loss results from viscous resistance to flow

(friction) at the conduit wall or from the viscous
dissipation of turbulence usually occurring with
separated flow, such as in bends, fittings or outlet
works.
 Head loss calculation
 Head loss is due to friction between the fluid and
the pipe wall and turbulence within the fluid

 The rate of head loss depend on roughness

element size apart from velocity and pipe diameter

 Further the head loss also depends on whether the

pipe is hydraulically smooth, rough or somewhere
in between

 In water distribution system , head loss is also due

to bends, valves and changes in pipe diameter
 Head loss calculation
 Head loss for steady flow through a straight pipe:
 0 Aw  pAr
p  4 L 0 / D

 0  f V 2 / 8

p L V2
h  f
 D 2g

 This is known as Darcy-Weisbach equation

 h/L=S, is slope of the hydraulic and energy grade

lines for a pipe of constant diameter
 Head loss calculation
Head loss in laminar flow:

Hagen-Poiseuille equation gives

32V
 S
D 2 g

 Combining above with Darcy-Weisbach equation, gives f

64
f 
VD
 Also we can write in terms of Reynolds number

64
f 
Nr

 This relation is valid for Nr<1000

 Head loss calculation
Head loss in turbulent flow:
 In turbulent flow, the friction factor is a function of both
Reynolds number and pipe roughness

 As the roughness size or the velocity increases, flow is

wholly rough and f depends on the relative roughness

 Where graphical determination of the friction factor is

acceptable, it is possible to use a Moody diagram.

 This diagram gives the friction factor over a wide range of

Reynolds numbers for laminar flow and smooth, transition,
and rough turbulent flow
 Head loss calculation
 The quantities shown in Moody Diagram are dimensionless
so they can be used with any system of units

 Moody’s diagram can be followed from any reference book

MINOR LOSSES

 Energy losses caused by valves, bends and changes in pipe

diameter

 This is smaller than friction losses in straight sections of

pipe and for all practical purposes ignored

 Minor losses are significant in valves and fittings, which

creates turbulence in excess of that produced in a straight
pipe
 Head loss calculation
Minor losses can be expressed in three ways:
1. A minor loss coefficient K may be used to give
head loss as a function of velocity head,
V2
hK
2g

2. Minor losses may be expressed in terms of the

equivalent length of straight pipe, or as pipe
diameters (L/D) which produces the same head
loss. 2
L V
h f
D 2g
 Head loss calculation
1. A flow coefficient Cv which gives a flow that will
pass through the valve at a pressure drop of
1psi may be specified. Given the flow coefficient
the head loss can be calculated as

18.5  106 D 4V 2
h
Cv2 2 g

The flow coefficient can be related to the minor loss

coefficient by
18.5  106 D 2
K
Cv2
Energy Equation for Flow in pipes
 Energy equation for pipe flow
P1 V12 P2 V22
z1    z2    hL
g 2 g g 2 g
 The energy equation represents elevation, pressure, and velocity forms
of energy. The energy equation for a fluid moving in a closed conduit is
written between two locations at a distance (length) L apart. Energy
losses for flow through ducts and pipes consist of major losses and
minor losses.
 Minor Loss Calculations for Fluid Flow
V2
hm  K
2g

 Minor losses are due to fittings such as valves and elbows

Major Loss Calculation for Fluid Flow
 Using Darcy-Weisbach Friction Loss Equation

 Major losses are due to friction between the moving fluid

and the inside walls of the duct.
 The Darcy-Weisbach method is generally considered more
accurate than the Hazen-Williams method. Additionally,
the Darcy-Weisbach method is valid for any liquid or gas.
 Moody Friction Factor Calculator
 Major Loss Calculation in pipes
 Using Hazen-Williams Friction Loss Equation

 Hazen-Williams is only valid for water at ordinary

temperatures (40 to 75oF). The Hazen-Williams method is
very popular, especially among civil engineers, since its
friction coefficient (C) is not a function of velocity or duct
(pipe) diameter. Hazen-Williams is simpler than Darcy-
Weisbach for calculations where one can solve for flow-
rate, velocity, or diameter
 Transient flow through long pipes
 Intermediate flow while changing from one
steady state to another is called transient
flow
 This occurs due to design or operating
errors or equipment malfunction.
 This transient state pressure causes lots of
damage to the network system
 Pressure rise in a close conduit caused by an
instantaneous change in flow velocity
 Transient flow through long pipes
 If the flow velocity at a point does vary with time, the flow
is unsteady

 When the flow conditions are changed from one steady

state to another, the intermediate stage flow is referred to
as transient flow

 The terms fluid transients and hydraulic transients are used

in practice

 The different flow conditions in a piping system are

discussed as below:
 Transient flow through long pipes
 Consider a pipe length of length L

 Water is flowing from a constant level upstream reservoir

to a valve at downstream

 Assume valve is instantaneously closed at time t=t0 from

the full open position to half open position.

 This reduces the flow velocity through the valve, thereby

increasing the pressure at the valve
 Transient flow through long pipes
Change in pressure due to rapid flow changes

 When the flow changes are rapid, the fluid

compressibility is needed to taken into account

 Changes are not instantaneous throughout the

system, rather pressure waves move back and
forth in the piping system.

 Pipe walls to be rigid and the liquid to be slightly

compressible