Instrumentation & Measurement

Electromechanical Instruments
Introduction
 PMMC Instrument
• Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC).

• Consists of light weight coil of copper wire,

suspended in the field of a permanent
magnet.
 PMMC Working
• Current in the wire causes the coil to produce
a magnetic field that interacts with the field
from the magnet.

• Resulting in partial rotation of the coil.

• A pointer connected to the coil deflects over a

calibrated scale, indicating level of current
flowing in the wire.
 PMMC as Low Level DC Ammeter
• PMMC Instrument is essentially a low level DC
ammeter.

• How to extend its range ????

• What is required for range extension???

 Continued….
• Parallel Connected resistors, it can be
employed to measure wide range of DC.

• What will happened if resistors are connected

in series??????
 Continued….
• If resistors are connected in series with coil
then PMMC is used as DC voltmeter.
 AC Ammeters & Voltmeters
• How?????

• Using Rectifier Circuits with PMMC Instrument

 Ohmmeters
• How ???

• Can be made from precision resistors, PMMC

Instruments and batteries.
 Multirange Meters
• Combine ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter
functions in one instrument.
 Electrodynamic Instrument
• Similar to PMMC.

• It uses stationary coils instead of a permanent

magnet.

• Most important application of electrodynamic

instrument is as a Wattmeter.
 PMMC Instrument
Deflection Instrument Fundamentals
• Deflection instrument uses a pointer.

• That moves over a calibrated scale.

• To indicate a measure quantity.

• For this to occur, what is required?????

 Three forces
• Three forces are operating in
electromechanical mechanism (or movement)
inside the instrument:

1. Deflection Force
2. Controlling Force
3. Damping Force
 1. Deflection Force
• Causes the pointer to move from its zero
position, when a current flows.

• In PMMC insturment, the deflecting torque is

magnetic.
 Continued....
• Pointer deflection is always proportional to
coil current.

• Scale of instrument is linear or uniformaly

divided that 1mA produces 1cm movement of
pointer from zero.
 2. Controlling Force
• Controlling force in PMMC is provided by
spiral springs.

• The spring retains the coil and pointer at their

zero posiion, when no current is flowing.

• When current flows, spring wind up, as coil

rotates, the force they exert on coil increases.
 Continued....
• The coil & pointer stop rotating when
controlling force equal to deflecting force.

• Spring material must be nonmagnetic, to

avoid any magnetic field influence on
controlling force.

• phosphor bronze is usually employed.

Continued....
 3. Damping Force
• Pointer and coil tends to oscillate for some
time before settling down at their final
position.

• A daming force is required to minimize or

damp out the oscillations.

• It is generated by the rotation of the coil.

• In PMMC, damping force is provided by eddy

currents.
Contined...
 PMMC Construction
• Also called D' Arsonval instruement.
 Continued....
Main Feautres
• Permanent magnet with two soft iron pole
shoes.
• A cylinderical soft iron core is positioned
between the shoes.
• so narrow air gap exists between the between
thr core and the faces of pole shoes.
• Moving coil is pivoted to move withing these
air gaps.
 Continued...
Main Features
• Two controlling spiral springs.
1. one end of spring is fastened to the pivoted
coil.
2. other end is connected to adjustable zero
position control.
How the pointer indicates zero at Scale
• By means of screw on isntrument cover, zero
position control can be adjusted to move the
end of the spring.

• This allow the coil and pointer position to be

adjusted (when no coil current is flowing).

• So that pointer indicates exacly zero on the

scale.
 Continued...
• The current in coil of PMMC instrument must
flow in one particular direction so that cause
the pointer to move positively from zero
position over the scale.

• in reverse condition the pointer deflected to

the left of the zero (off Scale).
• PMMC is polarized, without rectifier it is purly
a DC instrument.
 Continued.....
• The direction of current in coil of PMMC
instrument is very important.

• PMMC is polarized

• Cannot use directly for measuring AC Current

Continued....
 Torque Equation and Scale
• Current when flows through one turn coil that
is located in magnetic field. A force F is
exerted on each side of the coil. So
• F = BlI

B Magnetic flux density in tesla

I current in amperes
l is length of the coil in meters
 Continued....
• Since force act on both side of coil so that the total
force for a coil of N turns is:

• F = 2BlIN Newtons
The force on each side act at a radius r, producing a
deflecting torque
Td = 2BlINr (Newton Meter)
Td = BlIN(2r)
Td = BlIND
D is coil diameter
Example
Solution
 Two supporting Methods of moving
system of Deflection Instrument OR
Support of moving coil in PMMC
Instrument
1. Jeweled bearing suspension
2. Taut Band suspension
1. Jeweled Bearing Suspension
 Continued....
• The pointed end of shaft or pivot Fastened to
the coil are inserted into cone shaped cuts in
jewel bearings.

• This allows the coil to rotate free least

possible fricition.

• Coil is normally very light weight, pointed

ends with small area so load per unit area is
considerable.
 Continued....
• Some jewel bearings are spring supported to
absorb shock easily.
2. Taut Band Method
 Continued....
• Tougher than jewel bearing.

• Two flat metal ribbons (Phosphor bronze or

Platnium Alloy) are held under tension by
springs to support the coil.

• Due to springs metal ribbons act like rubber

under tension.
 Continued...
• Ribbon also exert controlling force as they
twist, and use as electrical connections to the
moving coil.

• Because of less friction this instrument is

more sensitive than jewel bearing method.

• Jeweled bearing FSD with 25 micro amper and

with taut band FSD 2 micro amper of coil
current.
 Galvanometer
• Essentially PMMC Instrument.
• Design to be sensitive to very low current
levels.
• Deflection system is arranged so that pointer
is deflected to either right or left of zero.
Dependig upon the direction of current
through moving coil.
• Same torque equation
 Continued....
• Current Sensitivity and Voltage sensitivity
• Galvanometer voltage sensitivity is expressed
for a given value of critical damping
resistance. Express as microvolts per
milimeter.
Continued....
Continued....
Example
Solution
 DC Ammeter
Ammeter Circuit
• Always connected in series with circuit where
current is to be measured.
Construction of DC ammeter
 How to Avoid affecting the current
level
• Ammeter must have a resistance much lower
than the circuit resistance.

• PMMC Instrument is an ammeter.

• Pointer Deflection is directly proportional to

current flowing in the coil. However maximum
pointer deflection is produced by very small
current. Coil is made of thin wire that is
quickly destroyed by large currents.
 For Large Currents
• For large currents the instrument must be
modified so that most of current to be
measurd is shunted around the coil of the
meter. Only a small portion of current is
passing through the moving coil.
 Shunt Resistance
• Shunt or very low resistance.
• Connected in parallel with the instrument coil.
• Some times called four terminal resistor.
• Voltage terminal and current terminals.
Ammeter Circuit
 Continued....
• In ammeter circuit, Rm is meter resistance or
coil circuit resistance.
• Rs is the resistance of the shunt

• Suppose that meter resistance is exactly 99

ohms and shunt resistance is 1 ohms.
• Shunt current Is will be 99 times the meter
current Im
 Continued....
• In this situation, if meter gives FSD for a coil
current of 0.1mA the scale should be
calibrated to read (100) (0.1mA) = 10mA. at
full scale.
 Continued....
DC ammeter Basic Circuit
 Continued....
• Shunt resistance is parallel with the meter
movement, the voltage drop across the shunt
and movement must be same and we can
write:
• Vshunt = Vmovement
IsRs = ImRm
Rs = ImRm / Is
Is = I - Im
Rs = ImRm / I - Im
For each required value of full scale meter current we can then
solve for the value of the shunt resistance required.
 Example
A 1-mA meter movement with an internal
resistance of 100 ohms is to be converted into a
0-100mA ammeter. Calculated the value of
shunt resistance required.
 Solution
• Is = I - Im = 100 - 1 = 99 mA
Rs = ImRm /Is = 1mA * 100ohms / 99 mA =
1.01ohms
 Example
An ammeter has PMMC instrument with a coil
resistance of Rm = 99 ohms, and FSD current of
0.1mA. Shunt resistace Rs = 1ohms.Determine
the total current passing through the ammeter
at:
a. FSD
b. 0.5 FSD
c. 0.25 FSD
Solution
Continued....
Continued...
 Ayrton Shunt
• Current range of DC ammeter is extended by number
of shunts, selected by a RANGE SWITCH.
• Such meter is called multi range ammeter.
• Figure below shows the multirange ammeter.
 Continued...
• Ra, Rb, Rc, Rd are the four shunts in above figure.
• placed in parallel with the movement to give four
different current ranges.

• Switch S is the multiposition make before break type

switch so movement will not be damaged.

• unprotected in circuit without the shunt as range is

changed.
 Universal or Ayrton Shunt
• This eliminates the possibility of having the meter in
the circuit without shunt. advantage is gained at
price of slightly higher overall meter resistance.
Cotinued....
 Example
• Design an ayrton shunt to provide an ammeter with
current ranges of 1A, 5A, and 10A. A d'arsonval
movement with an internal resistance of Rm = 50
ohms and FSD current of 1mA is used in
configuration.
Solution
Continued....
 DC Voltmeter
Multiplier Resistance
• Coil resistance is very small thus coil voltage is
also very small.
• Without additional series resistance the
instrument will read only very low voltage
levels.
• With a series resistance voltmeter range can
be extended.
• This resistance is called Mulitplier resistance.
Continued.....
Continued.....
 Purpose of Multiplier Resistor
• The Series Resistor or Multiplier Resistor converts
the basic d' Arsonval movement into a dc voltmeter.
 DC Voltmeter Continued....
• DC voltmeter measures the potential difference
between two points in a DC circuit.
• So that connected across a source of emf or circuit
component.
• Terminals are marked as “pos” and “neg” since
polarity must be observed.
 DC Voltmeter Continued....
• Refer to the voltmeter circuit shown above, the value of
multiplier can be calculated as:
• Im is deflection current of movement (Ifsd)
• Rm is internal resistance of movement
• Rs multiplier resistance
• V full range voltage of the instrument

• V= Im (Rs + Rm)
• V= ImRs + ImRm
• V-ImRm = ImRs
• Rs = V -ImRm / Im
• Rs = V / Im - Rm
Example
Continued....
Solution
Solution
 Multirange Voltmeter
• Number of multiplier with range switch, provides the
instrument with a workable number voltage ranges.

• Figure below shows a multirange voltmeter using

four position switch and four multipliers R1, R2, R3,
R4 and voltages V1, V2, V3, V4.
Multirange Voltmeter Circuit
 Voltmeter Sensitivity
Ohms per volt rating
• The quantity ohms / volt is called senstitivity or ohms
per volt rating of voltmeter.

• Sensitivity S is reciprocol of full scale deflection

current.

• S = 1 / Ifsd ohms /volt

Continued....
 Example
• A basic d' Arsonval movement with internal
resistance Rm = 100 ohms and Ifsd = 1mA is to be
converted into multirange dc voltmeter with voltage
ranges of 0-10V, 0-50V, 0-250v, 0-500V. Using the
sensitivity method find the multiplier resistance.
Solution
 AC Indicating Instruments
• d'Arsonval movent responds to average of DC value
of current through moving coil.
• If movement carriers AC current then we have
positive and negative half cycles.

• Driving torque will be in one direction for positive

half cycle and in other direction for negative cycle.
 AC with Very low frequency
• If frequency of AC is very low then ?????????
 AC with Very low frequency
• The pointer would swing back and fourth around the
around the zero point on the meter scale.
 AC with High frequency
• Inertia of coil is so great so Pointer cannot follow the
rapid reversal of the driving torque and hovers
around zero mark, Vibrating slightly.
 How to measure AC on d'Arsonval
Movement
• We need unidirectional torque that does not reverse
on each half cycle.

• What we need???????????
 Continued....
• One method involves rectification of AC so that
rectified current deflects the the coil.

• Other method include heating effect of AC to

produce an indication of its magnitude.
 1. Electrodynamometer
• Most important movement is AC
electrodynamometer.

• Used in AC ammeter and voltmeter.

• Electrodynamometer with some modification can be

used as Wattmeter, VAR meter, Power factor meter
or frequency.
 Continued....
Transfer Instrument
• Electrodynamometer movement can also serve as
the transfer instrument.

• Why??????????????
 Continued....
Transfer Instrument
• Because it is calibrated on DC and directly used on
AC.
Schematic of Electrodynamometer
Movement
 Continued....
• d'Arsonval movment uses permanent magnet to
provide magnetic field which the movable coil
rotates.

• Electrodynamometer uses the current under

measurement to provide necessary field flux.
 Construction
• Fixed coil------ Splits in two halves----------- magnetic
filed---------- which movable coil rotates.

• Two halves are connected in series with moving coil.

• Fed by current under measurement.

• Fixed coils are spaced far enough apart to allow

passage of the shaft of the movable coil.
 Construction Continued...
• Movable coil carries a pointer, the rotation is
controlled by the spring like d'Arsonval.

• Damping is provided by alumnimum air vanes.

• T=BAIN
• Torque which deflects movable coil is directly
proportional to coil constants A and N. Strenght of
magnetic field which coil moves (B) and I current
through coil.
 Continued...
• In Electrodynamometer the flux density (B) depends
upon the current through the fix coil. So diretcly
proportional to deflection current.