HND Computing

UNIT 38: Database Management

Systems

Faisal saghir
 1. SQL ─ Overview SQL

SQL is a language to operate databases; it includes database creation, deletion, fetching

rows, modifying rows, etc. SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
standard language, but there are many different versions of the SQL language.

WhatisSQL?
SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing, manipulating
and retrieving data stored in a relational database.

SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System. All the Relational Database
Management Systems (RDMS) like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres
and SQL Server use SQL as their standard database language.

Also, they are using different dialects, such as:

 MS SQL Server using T-SQL,

 Oracle using PL/SQL,

 MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format) etc.

Why SQL?
SQL is widely popular because it offers the following advantages:

 Allows users to access data in the relational database management systems.

 Allows users to describe the data.

 Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.
 Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-
compilers.

 Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.

 Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.

 Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.

A Brief History of SQL

 1970 – Dr. Edgar F. "Ted" Codd of IBM is known as the father of relational
databases. He described a relational model for databases.

 1974 – Structured Query Language appeared.

 1978 – IBM worked to develop Codd's ideas and released a product named
System/R.
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 1986 – IBM developed the first prototype of relational database and standardized
by ANSI. The first relational database was released by Relational Software which
later came to be known as Oracle.

SQLProcess
When you are executing an SQL command for any RDBMS, the system determines the
best way to carry out your request and SQL engine figures out how to interpret the task.
There are various components included in this process.

These components are –

 Query Dispatcher
 Optimization Engines
 Classic Query Engine
 SQL Query Engine, etc.

A classic query engine handles all the non-SQL queries, but a SQL query engine won't
handle logical files.

Following is a simple diagram showing the SQL Architecture:

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SQLCommands
The standard SQL commands to interact with relational databases are CREATE, SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and DROP. These commands can be classified into the following
groups based on their nature:

DDL - Data Definition Language

Command Description

CREATE Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other object in the

database.

ALTER Modifies an existing database object, such as a table.

DROP Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other objects in the

database.

DML - Data Manipulation Language

Command Description

SELECT Retrieves certain records from one or more tables.

INSERT Creates a record.

UPDATE Modifies records.

DELETE Deletes records.

DCL - Data Control Language

Command Description

GRANT Gives a privilege to user.

REVOKE Takes back privileges granted from user.

 2. SQL ─ RDBMSConcepts SQL

WhatisRDBMS?
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the basis for SQL,
and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and
Microsoft Access.

A Relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management system

(DBMS) that is based on the relational model as introduced by E. F. Codd.

What is a table?
The data in an RDBMS is stored in database objects which are called as tables. This table
is basically a collection of related data entries and it consists of numerous columns and
rows.

Remember, a table is the most common and simplest form of data storage in a relational
database. The following program is an example of a CUSTOMERS table:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

What is a field?
Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the CUSTOMERS
table consist of ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS and SALARY.

A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about every
record in the table.

What is a Record or a Row?

A record is also called as a row of data is each individual entry that exists in a table. For
example, there are 7 records in the above CUSTOMERS table. Following is a single row of
data or record in the CUSTOMERS table:
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+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

A record is a horizontal entity in a table.

What is a column?
A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a
specific field in a table.

For example, a column in the CUSTOMERS table is ADDRESS, which represents location
description and would be as shown below:

+-----------+
| ADDRESS |
+-----------+
| Ahmedabad |
| Delhi |
| Kota |
| Mumbai |
| Bhopal |
| MP |
| Indore |
+----+------+

What is a NULL value?

A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank, which means a field
with a NULL value is a field with no value.

It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value or a
field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is the one that has been left blank
during a record creation.

SQLConstraints
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on a table. These are used to limit the
type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data
in the database.

Constraints can either be column level or table level. Column level constraints are applied
only to one column whereas, table level constraints are applied to the entire table.
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Following are some of the most commonly used constraints available in SQL:

 NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.

 DEFAULT Constraint: Provides a default value for a column when none is specified.

 UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all the values in a column are different.

 PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table.

 FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identifies a row/record in any another database table.

 CHECK Constraint: The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column satisfy
certain conditions.

 INDEX: Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.

DataIntegrity
The following categories of data integrity exist with each RDBMS:

 Entity Integrity: There are no duplicate rows in a table.

 Domain Integrity: Enforces valid entries for a given column by restricting the
type, the format, or the range of values.

 Referential integrity: Rows cannot be deleted, which are used by other records.
 User-Defined Integrity: Enforces some specific business rules that do not fall
into entity, domain or referential integrity.

DatabaseNormalization
Database normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database. There
are two reasons of this normalization process:

 Eliminating redundant data. For example, storing the same data in more than one
table.

 Ensuring data dependencies make sense.

Both these reasons are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database
consumes and ensures that data is logically stored. Normalization consists of a series of
guidelines that help guide you in creating a good database structure.

Normalization guidelines are divided into normal forms; think of a form as the format or
the way a database structure is laid out. The aim of normal forms is to organize the
database structure, so that it complies with the rules of first normal form, then second
normal form and finally the third normal form.

It is your choice to take it further and go to the fourth normal form, fifth normal form and
so on, but in general, the third normal form is more than enough.
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 Second Normal Form (2NF)

 Third Normal Form (3NF)

Database–FirstNormalForm(1NF)
The First normal form (1NF) sets basic rules for an organized database:

 Define the data items required, because they become the columns in a table.

 Place the related data items in a table.

 Ensure that there are no repeating groups of data.

 Ensure that there is a primary key.

First Rule of 1NF

You must define the data items. This means looking at the data to be stored, organizing
the data into columns, defining what type of data each column contains and then finally
putting the related columns into their own table.

For example, you put all the columns relating to locations of meetings in the Location
table, those relating to members in the MemberDetails table and so on.

Second Rule of 1NF

The next step is ensuring that there are no repeating groups of data. Consider we have
the following table:

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
ORDERS VARCHAR(155)
);

So, if we populate this table for a single customer having multiple orders, then it would be
something as shown below:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS ORDERS

100 Sachin 36 Lower West Side Cannon XL-200

100 Sachin 36 Lower West Side Battery XL-200

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100 Sachin 36 Lower West Side Tripod Large

But as per the 1NF, we need to ensure that there are no repeating groups of data. So, let
us break the above table into two parts and then join them using a key as shown in the
following program:

CUSTOMERS Table
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

This table would have the following record:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS

100 Sachin 36 Lower West Side

ORDERS Table
CREATE TABLE ORDERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
CUSTOMER_ID INT NOT NULL,
ORDERS VARCHAR(155),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

This table would have the following records:

ID CUSTOMER_ID ORDERS

10 100 Cannon XL-200

11 100 Battery XL-200

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12 100 Tripod Large

Third Rule of 1NF

The final rule of the first normal form, create a primary key for each table which we have
already created.

Database–SecondNormalForm(2NF)
The Second Normal Form states that it should meet all the rules for 1NF and there must
be no partial dependences of any of the columns on the primary key:

Consider a customer-order relation and you want to store customer ID, customer name,
order ID and order detail and the date of purchase:

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

CUST_ID INT NOT NULL,
CUST_NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
ORDER_ID INT NOT NULL,
ORDER_DETAIL VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
SALE_DATE DATETIME,
PRIMARY KEY (CUST_ID, ORDER_ID)
);

This table is in the first normal form; in that it obeys all the rules of the first normal form.
In this table, the primary key consists of the CUST_ID and the ORDER_ID. Combined, they
are unique assuming the same customer would hardly order the same thing.

However, the table is not in the second normal form because there are partial
dependencies of primary keys and columns. CUST_NAME is dependent on CUST_ID and
there's no real link between a customer's name and what he purchased. The order detail
and purchase date are also dependent on the ORDER_ID, but they are not dependent on
the CUST_ID, because there is no link between a CUST_ID and an ORDER_DETAIL or their
SALE_DATE.

To make this table comply with the second normal form, you need to separate the columns
into three tables.

First, create a table to store the customer details as shown in the code block below:

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

CUST_ID INT NOT NULL,
CUST_NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (CUST_ID)
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);

The next step is to create a table to store the details of each order:

CREATE TABLE ORDERS(

ORDER_ID INT NOT NULL,
ORDER_DETAIL VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (ORDER_ID)

);

Finally, create a third table storing just the CUST_ID and the ORDER_ID to keep a track
of all the orders for a customer:

CREATE TABLE CUSTMERORDERS(

CUST_ID INT NOT NULL,
ORDER_ID INT NOT NULL,
SALE_DATE DATETIME,
PRIMARY KEY (CUST_ID, ORDER_ID)
);

Database– ThirdNormalForm(3NF)
A table is in a third normal form when the following conditions are met:

 It is in the second normal form.

 All non-primary fields are dependent on the primary key.

The dependency of these non-primary fields is between the data. For example, in the
following table – the street name, city and the state are unbreakably bound to their zip
code.

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

CUST_ID INT NOT NULL,
CUST_NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
DOB DATE,
STREET VARCHAR(200),
CITY VARCHAR(100),
STATE VARCHAR(100),
ZIP VARCHAR(12),
EMAIL_ID VARCHAR(256),
PRIMARY KEY (CUST_ID)
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);

The dependency between the zip code and the address is called as a transitive dependency.
To comply with the third normal form, all you need to do is to move the Street, City and
the State fields into their own table, which you can call as the Zip Code table.

CREATE TABLE ADDRESS(

ZIP VARCHAR(12),
STREET VARCHAR(200),
CITY VARCHAR(100),
STATE VARCHAR(100),
PRIMARY KEY (ZIP)
);

The next step is to alter the CUSTOMERS table as shown below.

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

CUST_ID INT NOT NULL,
CUST_NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
DOB DATE,
ZIP VARCHAR(12),
EMAIL_ID VARCHAR(256),
PRIMARY KEY (CUST_ID)
);

The advantages of removing transitive dependencies are mainly two-fold. First, the
amount of data duplication is reduced and therefore your database becomes smaller.

The second advantage is data integrity. When duplicated data changes, there is a big risk
of updating only some of the data, especially if it is spread out in many different places in
the database.

For example, if the address and the zip code data were stored in three or four different
tables, then any changes in the zip codes would need to ripple out to every record in those
three or four tables.
 3. SQL ─ RDBMSDatabases SQL

There are many popular RDBMS available to work with. This tutorial gives a brief overview
of some of the most popular RDBMS’s. This would help you to compare their basic features.

MySQL
MySQL is an open source SQL database, which is developed by a Swedish company –
MySQL AB. MySQL is pronounced as "my ess-que-ell," in contrast with SQL, pronounced
"sequel."

MySQL is supporting many different platforms including Microsoft Windows, the major
Linux distributions, UNIX, and Mac OS X.

MySQL has free and paid versions, depending on its usage (non-commercial/commercial)
and features. MySQL comes with a very fast, multi-threaded, multi-user and robust SQL
database server.

History
 Development of MySQL by Michael Widenius & David Axmark beginning in 1994.

 First internal release on 23rd May 1995.

 Windows Version was released on the 8th January 1998 for Windows 95 and NT.

 Version 3.23: beta from June 2000, production release January 2001.

 Version 4.0: beta from August 2002, production release March 2003 (unions).

 Version 4.01: beta from August 2003, Jyoti adopts MySQL for database tracking.

 Version 4.1: beta from June 2004, production release October 2004.

 Version 5.0: beta from March 2005, production release October 2005.

 Sun Microsystems acquired MySQL AB on the 26th February 2008.

 Version 5.1: production release 27th November 2008.

Features
 High Performance.

 High Availability.

 Scalability and Flexibility Run anything.

 Robust Transactional Support.

 Web and Data Warehouse Strengths.

 Strong Data Protection.

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 Comprehensive Application Development.

 Management Ease.

 Open Source Freedom and 24 x 7 Support.

 Lowest Total Cost of Ownership.

MSSQLServer
MS SQL Server is a Relational Database Management System developed by Microsoft Inc.
Its primary query languages are:

 T-SQL

 ANSI SQL

History
 1987 - Sybase releases SQL Server for UNIX.

 1988 - Microsoft, Sybase, and Aston-Tate port SQL Server to OS/2.

 1989 - Microsoft, Sybase, and Aston-Tate release SQL Server 1.0 for OS/2.

 1990 - SQL Server 1.1 is released with support for Windows 3.0 clients.

 Aston - Tate drops out of SQL Server development.

 2000 - Microsoft releases SQL Server 2000.

 2001 - Microsoft releases XML for SQL Server Web Release 1 (download).

 2002 - Microsoft releases SQLXML 2.0 (renamed from XML for SQL Server).

 2002 - Microsoft releases SQLXML 3.0.

 2005 - Microsoft releases SQL Server 2005 on November 7th, 2005.

Features
 High Performance

 High Availability

 Database mirroring

 Database snapshots

 CLR integration
 Service Broker

 DDL triggers

 Ranking functions
 Row version-based isolation levels

 XML integration
 4. SQL – Syntax SQL

SQL is followed by a unique set of rules and guidelines called Syntax. This tutorial gives
you a quick start with SQL by listing all the basic SQL Syntax.

All the SQL statements start with any of the keywords like SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE, ALTER, DROP, CREATE, USE, SHOW and all the statements end with a semicolon
(;).

The most important point to be noted here is that SQL is case insensitive, which means
SELECT and select have same meaning in SQL statements. Whereas, MySQL makes
difference in table names. So, if you are working with MySQL, then you need to give table
names as they exist in the database.

VariousSyntaxinSQL
All the examples given in this tutorial have been tested with a MySQL server.

SQL SELECT Statement

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name;

SQL DISTINCT Clause

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name;

SQL WHERE Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;

SQL AND/OR Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION-1 {AND|OR} CONDITION-2;
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SQL IN Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (val-1, val-2,...val-N);

SQL BETWEEN Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN val-1 AND val-2;

SQL LIKE Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE { PATTERN };

SQL ORDER BY Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
ORDER BY column_name {ASC|DESC};

SQL GROUP BY Clause

SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name;

SQL COUNT Clause

SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
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SQL HAVING Clause

SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING (arithematic function condition);

SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

CREATE TABLE table_name(

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,

.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);

SQL DROP TABLE Statement

DROP TABLE table_name;

SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name ( column1, column2,...columnN);

SQL DROP INDEX Statement

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP INDEX index_name;

SQL DESC Statement

DESC table_name;

SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

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SQL ALTER TABLE Statement

ALTER TABLE table_name {ADD|DROP|MODIFY} column_name {data_ype};

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement (Rename)

ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;

SQL INSERT INTO Statement

INSERT INTO table_name( column1, column2....columnN)

VALUES ( value1, value2....valueN);

SQL UPDATE Statement

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2....columnN=valueN
[ WHERE CONDITION ];

SQL DELETE Statement

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE {CONDITION};

SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

CREATE DATABASE database_name;

SQL DROP DATABASE Statement

DROP DATABASE database_name;

SQL USE Statement

USE database_name;

SQL COMMIT Statement

COMMIT;

SQL ROLLBACK Statement

 5. SQL ─ DataTypes SQL

SQL Data Type is an attribute that specifies the type of data of any object. Each column,
variable and expression has a related data type in SQL. You can use these data types while
creating your tables. You can choose a data type for a table column based on your
requirement.

SQL Server offers six categories of data types for your use which are listed below −

Exact Numeric Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

bigint -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 9,223,372,036,854,775,807

int -2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647

smallint -32,768 32,767

tinyint 0 255

bit 0 1

decimal -10^38 +1 10^38 -1

numeric -10^38 +1 10^38 -1

money -922,337,203,685,477.5808 +922,337,203,685,477.5807

smallmoney -214,748.3648 +214,748.3647

Approximate Numeric Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

float -1.79E + 308 1.79E + 308

real -3.40E + 38 3.40E + 38

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Date and Time Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

datetime Jan 1, 1753 Dec 31, 9999

smalldatetime Jan 1, 1900 Jun 6, 2079

date Stores a date like June 30, 1991

time Stores a time of day like 12:30 P.M.

Note − Here, datetime has 3.33 milliseconds accuracy where as smalldatetime has 1
minute accuracy.

Character Strings Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

char Maximum length of 8,000 characters.( Fixed length non-

Unicode characters)

varchar Maximum of 8,000 characters.(Variable-length non-Unicode

data).

varchar(max) Maximum length of 231characters, Variable-length non-

Unicode data (SQL Server 2005 only).

text Variable-length non-Unicode data with a maximum length of

2,147,483,647 characters.

Unicode Character Strings Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

nchar Maximum length of 4,000 characters.( Fixed length Unicode)

nvarchar Maximum length of 4,000 characters.(Variable length Unicode)

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Maximum length of 231characters (SQL Server 2005 only).(

nvarchar(max) Variable length Unicode)

Maximum length of 1,073,741,823 characters. ( Variable length

ntext Unicode )

Binary Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

binary Maximum length of 8,000 bytes(Fixed-length binary data )

varbinary Maximum length of 8,000 bytes.(Variable length binary data)

Maximum length of 231 bytes (SQL Server 2005 only). (

varbinary(max) Variable length Binary data)

Maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes. ( Variable length

image Binary Data)

Misc Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

Stores values of various SQL Server-supported data types,

sql_variant except text, ntext, and timestamp.

Stores a database-wide unique number that gets updated every

timestamp time a row gets updated

uniqueidentifier Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)

Stores XML data. You can store xml instances in a column or a

xml variable (SQL Server 2005 only).

cursor Reference to a cursor object

table Stores a result set for later processing