Resident Physics Lectures

Radiographic Film
Prof. J.K Tonui, PhD

School of Medicine,
Department of Radiology & Imaging
 Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, the student is expected to:

 Describe stages of film processing and their functions .

 Describe various types of films and their uses.

 Know the standard screen-film sizes available

commercially.
 Understand how films are handled and stored.

 Define safe light and explain why is it needed in x-ray

darkroom.

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 Introduction
X-rays films

 Most common hard copies used in radiology, but

 Are being replaced now by filmless or digital IRs with

many theoretical benefits such as low cost and security.

Film emulsion,

 Has been refined successfully for radiology applications,

and
 Is used with and without screen, video recording, cine

recording, and film recording from image plates.

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 Light vs. Dark Areas on Film
Dark spots in the film

 Are silver halide crystals that have been exposed

to photons (x-rays or light), where

 They turn to black metallic silver after processing.

Light areas on the film

 Are where no crystals are exposed and

 Unexposed silver halides are washed away

during processing.

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 Film Processing
After exposure of film to light or x-rays,

 Latent image is formed at the sensitivity speck

sites on individual film grains, and

 Is processed to convert latent image to a

viewable or manifest permanent image, and is

done in 3-stages:
1. Development,

2. Fixing and

3. Washing.

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 Film Development
Development

 Magnifies latent image by reducing remaining AgBr in

exposed crystal to silver and giving developed or

manifest image, and
 Uses chemical developer, which is usually a solution of

water, developing agents, an activator, a restrainer, a

preservative, and a hardener, (see Table in next slide for
chemical type and use) and
 The film is immersed to a sequence of this chemical

solutions as shown in Fig. in next slide.

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 Film Development

Source: Bushberg et. al, pg. 180

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 Film Development
The film development

 Can be done either

manually or
automatically.
automatically
 This is an automatic

processor and should

 Deliver consistent

performance, film after

film, day after day.

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 Automatic Processing
Development processes

 Can be done either manually or automatically.

However,

 Automatic processing is preferred because

 It is much faster than manual, where

 Automatic process takes typically 90 s from

introducing exposed film to receiving a dried

image.

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 Automatic Processing
Automatic processing

 Maintains consistent image quality, and

 Uses deep processing tanks kept at constant

temp. and
 Rollers immersed in the tanks to transport

the film and

 Ensures that film is subjected to consistent

processing conditions.

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 Film Development
Chemical reactions involved in development

 Is highly dependent on both temperature and

concentration of chemicals, as well as time, and

 Both conditions are controlled by the processor,

 Typical temperature in the processor is 35°C

(95°F), and is controlled precisely by a thermostat,

and
 Pumps circulate the liquid in each tank to ensure

adequate thermal and chemical mixing.

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 Film Development
Note that

 AgBr crystals that are not exposed to photons

form no latent images, and hence remain

inert to chemical development.

Developing agents or chemicals

 Are reducing agents, and act as a source of

electrons to initiate reduction of Ag+ to Ag

atom:

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 Film Development
Note that

 The phenidone agent participates in chemical

reactions in film areas with a low concentration

of latent image centers (will appear lighter,
lower OD regions of the manifest image), and
 The hydroquinone participates more in areas of

the emulsion that are more heavily exposed

(darker areas or higher OD of the image).

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 Film Development
Latent image silver atoms

 Cause the entire silver halide crystal or grain to

be reduced to silver, and

 When the emulsion has been completely

developed it will consist of:

o Silver halide crystals reduced completely to silver

atoms representing amplified latent image

information, and
o Unexposed and unaltered silver halide crystals.

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 Fixing Processes
Fixing

 Is used to remove unexposed silver halide crystals

in gelatin after development, because

 These silver halide crystals are still sensitive to

light, and
 Hence, exposing them to light will cause self-

development , which
 Will change the image, hence need to be

deactivated.

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 Fixing Processes
Fixing stage,

 Dissolves undeveloped silver halide crystals

in a fixer chemical compound called

ammonium thiosulfate (NH4)2S2O3 which
removes the unexposed, unaltered silver
halide as a soluble complex:

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 Wash Processing
Silver thiosulfate complex

 Is carried out of the emulsion when the film is

thoroughly washed with clean water, but

 This complex compound is still light sensitive to

light and will slowly decompose leaving a silver

deposit on the film image in a poorly washed films,
which
 Is the main cause of darkening and consequent

deterioration of archived films.

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 Washing Process
 Thus,

 After fixing, the film is thoroughly washed in water in

order to remove processing chemicals and any remaining

dissolved silver halide, which
 Leaves only the insoluble silver grains embedded in pure

gelatin.

 Drying

 Removes the excess water solvent from the gelatin, which

 Produces a completely permanent archival material known

as photographic film.

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 Types of X-ray Film
Types:

 Screen film used with intensifying screens,

o Single emulsion-
emulsion emulsion on one side of base.
o Double emulsion – emulsion coated on both sides of

base.

 Direct exposure film or non-screen film.

 Special purpose:

o Duplication, Cine, Dental

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 Special Film Types
Direct exposure:

 Used for small body parts measuring <10 cm,

but
 Requires 10 to 100 time more exposure.

 No longer used except for dental radiography.

Single emulsion film:

 Used in mammography units, with

 A single screen behind the film.

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 Special Film Types
Laser Film:

 Used in digital radiography such as CT scan, MRI

and US scan to print images using laser printers,

which
 Are dry chemical printers (similar to laser printers

used in computer printers).

Spot film:

 Special roll film of 70 to 105 mm width used in

fluoroscopy in medical radiography.

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 Standard Screen-Film Sizes
English Units SI Units (cm)
8” x 10” 20 x 25
10” x 12” 24 x 30
11” x 14” 30 x 35
7” x 17” 18 x 43
14” x 17” 35 x 43
14” x 36”

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 Safelight
 Films

 Are usually loaded to and

unloaded from cassette in

dark rooms, hence
 Requires special lighting to

avoid film exposure, and

 Filters are used to produce red

light spectrum that do not

exposure of the film as seen in
this Fig.

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 SAFELIGHTS

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 Handling & Storage of X-ray
Films
X-ray films

 Are sensitive radiation detectors and hence

must be handled in radiation free areas, hence

o Film storage must be shielded.

o The darkroom adjacent to the x-ray room must be

shielded.
o If film use is low, more shielding may be required

(to reduce possibility of self exposure).

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 Handling & Storage of X-ray
Films
Improper handling of the film will result in poor image

quality due to artifacts:

 Avoid bending, creasing or otherwise rough handling the

film.
 Avoid sharp objects contacting the film.

 Hands must be clean and dry.

 Avoid hand creams, lotions or water free hand cleaners.

 Static electricity or a dirty processor can cause artifacts,

and
 Artifacts must be avoided.

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 Handling & Storage of X-ray
Films
X-ray Films

 Are sensitive to heat and humidity from the

time it is manufactured until the time it is

viewed, hence must be controlled, because
 Heat and humidity causes fog or a loss of

contrast.
o Film should be stored at 20º C (68º F).

o Humidity should be between 40% and 60%.

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 Handling & Storage of X-ray
Films
Light will expose the film, hence film must

be handled and stored in the dark:

 If low level diffuse light exposes the film, fog

is increased.
o Luminous watches, cell phone and

darkroom light leaks should be avoided.

 Bright light causes gross exposure.

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 Handling & Storage of X-ray
Films
Shelf life

 All film is supplied in boxes with an expiry date:

o Most film is supplied in boxes of 100 sheets.

o The 14” x 36” size is supplied in 25 sheet boxes with each

sheet interleaved with a paper.

The oldest film in stock should always be used first.

 Rotation is important.

 Expired will loose speed and contrast and have

increased fog.

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 Film Storage
FILM BINS FILM Shelfs

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 Future Fate of Films
Films

 Are dying out across most (but not all) of the world,

where
 They are being faced out gradually in convectional X-

ray imaging systems (including mammography), and

 As a result of digitization in every sector in the 21 st

century and radiology is not an exception, but

 Are high cost currently especially in developing world.

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