Structures and

Functions of the
Cell
Outline

• Cellular Level of Organization

– Cell theory
– Cell size
• Prokaryotic Cells
• Eukaryotic Cells
– Organelles
• Nucleus and Ribosome
• Endomembrane System
• Other Vesicles and Vacuoles
• Energy related organelles
• Cytoskeleton
• Centrioles, Cilia, and Flagella
Microscopy and the Discovery of
the Cell
• In 1665, Robert • Hooke called them
Hooke used a “CELLS” because
microscope to they looked like the
examine a thin slice small rooms that
of cork (dead plant monks lived in
cells) called Cells
• What he saw looked
like small boxes
• Hooke is
responsible for
naming cells
 Microscopy and the
Discovery of the Cell
• In 1665,
Leeuwenhoek (a
Dutch microscope
maker), was first to
view organism
(living things)
• Leeuwenhoek used
a simple, handheld
microscope to view
pond water &
scrapings from his
teeth
 Microscopy and the
Discovery of the Cell
• In 1838, a German
botanist named
Matthias Schleiden
concluded that all
plants were made of
cells
• Schleiden is a
cofounder of the cell
theory
 Microscopy and the
Discovery of the Cell
• In 1839, a German
zoologist named
Theodore Schwann
concluded that all
animals were made
of cells
• Schwann also
cofounded the cell
theory
 Microscopy and the
Discovery of the Cell
• In 1855, a German
medical doctor
named Rudolph
Virchow observed,
under the
microscope, cells
dividing
• He reasoned that all
cells come from
other pre-existing
cells by cell division
Cell Theory

• Detailed study of the cell began in the 1830s

• A unifying concept in biology
• Originated from the work of biologists Schleiden
and Schwann in 1838-9
• States that:
– All organisms are composed of cells
• German botanist Matthais Schleiden in 1838
• German zoologist Theodor Schwann in 1839
– All cells come only from preexisting cells
• German physician Rudolph Virchow in 1850’s
– Cells are the smallest structural and functional unit of
organisms
Cell Size

• Cells range in size from one millimeter down to

one micrometer
• Cells need a large surface area of plasma
membrane to adequately exchange materials.
• The surface-area-to-volume ratio requires that
cells be small
– Large cells - surface area relative to volume
decreases
– Volume is living cytoplasm, which demands nutrients
and produces wastes
– Cells specialized in absorption utilize membrane
modifications such as microvilli to greatly increase
surface area per unit volume
 Microscopy and Cheek Cells

Differential interference
Bright-field. Light Phase contrast. Density
Bright-field (stained). contrast. Optical methods Dark-field. Light is passed
passing through the differences in the
Dyes are used to stain are used to enhance through the specimen at
specimen is brought specimen cause light rays
the specimen. Certain density differences within an oblique angle so that
directly into focus. Usually, to come out of “phase.”
components take up the specimen so that the objective lens receives
the low level of contrast The microscope enhances
the dye more than other certain regions appear only light diffracted and
within the specimen these phase differences so
components, and therefore brighter than others. This scattered by the object.
interferes with viewing all that some regions of the
contrast is enhanced. technique is used to view This technique is used to
but its largest components. specimen appear brighter
living cells, chromosomes, view organelles, which
or darker than others. The
and organelle masses. appear quite bright against
technique is widely used
a dark field.
to observe living cells and
organelles.
Prokaryotic Cells

• Lack a membrane-bound nucleus

• Structurally smaller and simpler than eukaryotic
cells (which have a nucleus).
• Prokaryotic cells are placed in two taxonomic
domains:
– Bacteria
– Archaea
• Live in extreme habitats
– Domains are structurally similar but biochemically
different
 The Structure of Bacteria

• Extremely small - 1–1.5 μm wide and 2–6 μm long

• Occur in three basic shapes:
– Spherical coccus,
– Rod-shaped bacillus,
– Spiral spirillum (if rigid) or spirochete (if flexible).
• Cell Envelope includes:
– Plasma membrane - lipid bilayer with imbedded and peripheral
protein
• Form internal pouches (mesosomes)
– Cell wall - maintains the shape of the cell and is strengthened by
peptidoglycan
– Glycocalyx - layer of polysaccharides on the outside of the cell
wall
• Well organized and resistant to removal (capsule)
 The Structure of Bacteria

spirillum

spirochete bacillus

coccus
 Eukaryotic Cells

• Domain Eukarya includes:

– Protists
– Fungi
– Plants
– Animals
• Cells contain:
– Membrane-bound nucleus that houses DNA
– Specialized organelles
– Plasma membrane
– Much larger than prokaryotic cells
– Some cells (e.g., plant cells) have a cell wall
The Structure of Bacteria Cytoplasm &
Appendages

• Cytoplasm
– Semifluid solution
• Bounded by plasma membrane
• Contains water, inorganic and organic molecules, and enzymes.
– Nucleoid is a region that contains the single, circular DNA
molecule.
– Plasmids are small accessory (extrachromosomal) rings of DNA
• Appendages
– Flagella – Provide motility
– Fimbriae – small, bristle-like fibers that sprout from the cell
surface
– Sex pili – rigid tubular structures used to pass DNA from cell to
cell
 Eukaryotic Cells: Organelles

• Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized

– They contain small structures called organelles
• Perform specific functions
• Isolates reactions from others
• Two classes of organelles:
– Endomembrane system:
• Organelles that communicate with one another
– Via membrane channels
– Via small vesicles
– Energy related organelles
• Mitochondria & chloroplasts
• Basically independent & self-sufficient
 Nucleus
• Command center of cell, usually near center
• Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear envelope
– Consists of double layer of membrane
– Nuclear pores permit exchange between nucleoplasm
& cytoplasm
• Contains chromatin in semifluid nucleoplasm
– Chromatin contains DNA of genes, and proteins
– Condenses to form chromosomes
• Chromosomes are formed during cell division
• Dark nucleolus composed of rRNA
– Produces subunits of ribosomes
 Inside the Nucleus -
The genetic material (DNA) is found

DNA is spread out DNA is condensed &

And appears as wrapped around proteins
CHROMATIN forming
in non-dividing cells as CHROMOSOMES
in dividing cells
21
 Mitochondria

• Powerhouse of the
cell

• Energy production for

cells (ATP)

• Sites of aerobic
respiration
 Ribosomes
• Are the site of protein synthesis in the cell
• Composed of rRNA
• May be located:
– On the endoplasmic reticulum (thereby making it
“rough”), or
– Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or in groups,
called polyribosomes
Endomembrane System
• Series of intracellular membranes that
compartmentalize the cell
• Restrict enzymatic reactions to specific
compartments within cell
• Consists of:
– Nuclear envelope 3. SRP attaches to receptor (purple);
a channel opens; and the
polypeptide enters ER..

– Membranes of endoplasmic reticulum

– Golgi apparatus
– Vesicles
• Several types
• Transport materials between organelles of system
Endomembrane System:
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Smooth ER
– No ribosomes
– Synthesis of lipids
– Site of various synthetic
processes, detoxification,
and storage
– Forms transport
vesicles
– Synthesizes steroids
– Transports substances
– Regulates calcium levels
for muscle contraction
 Endomembrane System:
The Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough ER
– Studded with ribosomes
on cytoplasmic side
– Protein anabolism
• Synthesizes proteins
• Modifies and
processes proteins
– Adds sugar to
protein
– Results in
glycoproteins
Endomembrane System:Golgi
Apparatus
– Consists of 3-20 flattened, curved saccules
– Resembles stack of hollow pancakes
– Modifies proteins and lipids
• Receives vesicles from ER on cis (or inner face)
• Packages them in vesicles
• Prepares for “shipment” in v Packages them in
vesicles from trans (or outer face)
– Within cell
– Export from cell (secretion, exocytosis)
 Endomembrane System:
Lysosomes
• digests waste
materials and food
within the cell
• breaks down
molecules into their
base components
with strong digestive
enzymes
• diseases
– Caused by defect in
lysosomal enzyme
– Lysosomal storage
diseases (Tay-Sachs)
• Proteins produced in rough ER and lipids
from smooth ER are carried in vesicles to
the Golgi apparatus.
• The Golgi apparatus modifies these
products and then sorts and packages
them into vesicles that go to various cell
destinations.
• Secretory vesicles carry products to the
membrane where exocytosis produces
secretions.
• Lysosomes fuse with incoming vesicles
and digest macromolecules.
Peroxisomes
• Similar to lysosomes
– Membrane-bounded vesicles
– Enclose enzymes
• However
– Enzymes synthesized by free ribosomes in cytoplasm
(instead of ER)
– Active in lipid metabolism
– Catalyze reactions that produce hydrogen peroxide
H2O2
• Toxic
• Broken down to water & O2 by catalase
 Vacuoles

• Membranous sacs that are larger than vesicles

– Store materials that occur in excess
– Others very specialized (contractile vacuole)
• Plants cells typically have a central vacuole
– Up to 90% volume of some cells
– Functions in:
• Storage of water, nutrients, pigments, and waste products
• Development of turgor pressure
• Some functions performed by lysosomes in other eukaryotes
 Energy-Related Organelles:
Chloroplast Structure

• Bounded by double membrane

• Inner membrane infolded
– Forms disc-like thylakoids, which are stacked to form
grana
– Suspended in semi-fluid stroma

• Green due to chlorophyll

– Green photosynthetic pigment
– Found ONLY in inner membranes of chloroplast
 Energy-Related
Organelles: Chloroplasts
• Membranous organelles (a type of plastid) that serve as the site of
photosynthesis

• Captures light energy to drive cellular machinery

• Photosynthesis

– Synthesizes carbohydrates from CO2 & H2O

– Makes own food using CO2 as only carbon source

– Energy-poor compounds converted to energy-rich compounds

solar energy + carbon dioxide + water → carbohydrate + oxygen

– Only plants, algae, and certain bacteria are capable of conducting

photosynthesis
 Energy-Related Organelles:
Chloroplasts
• Surrounded by
DOUBLE membrane
• Outer membrane
smooth
• Inner membrane
modified into sacs
called Thylakoids
• Thylakoids in stacks
called Grana &
interconnected
• Stroma – gel like
material
surrounding
Cytoskeleton
• Maintains cell shape

• Assists in movement of cell and organelles

• Three types of macromolecular fibers

– Actin Filaments

– Intermediate Filaments

– Microtubules

• Assemble and disassemble as needed

 The Cytoskeleton:
Microtubules
• Hollow cylinders made of two globular proteins
called a and b tubulin
• Spontaneous pairing of a and b tubulin
molecules form structures called dimers
• Dimers then arrange themselves into tubular
spirals of 13 dimers around
• Assembly:
– Under control of Microtubule Organizing Center
(MTOC)
– Most important MTOC is centrosome
• Interacts with proteins kinesin and dynein to
cause movement of organelles
 Centrioles

• Short, hollow cylinders

– Composed of 27 microtubules
– Microtubules arranged into 9 overlapping triplets
• One pair per animal cell
– Located in centrosome of animal cells
– Oriented at right angles to each other
– Separate during mitosis to determine plane of division
• May give rise to basal bodies of cilia and flagella
Microtubular Arrays: Cilia and
Flagella
• Hair-like projections from cell surface that aid in
cell movement
• Very different from prokaryote flagella
– Outer covering of plasma membrane
– Inside this is a cylinder of 18 microtubules arranged in
9 pairs
– In center are two single microtubules
– This 9 + 2 pattern used by all cilia & flagella
• In eukaryotes, cilia are much shorter than
flagella
– Cilia move in coordinated waves like oars
– Flagella move like a propeller or cork screw
 How do plant cells differ from
animal cells?

Plant cells have • Animal cells have

different structures lysosomes and
Contains: centrioles
– Cell wall
– Chloroplast
• Site of photosynthesis
– Vacuole (large central,
takes up most part of
cell)