UNIT III

TRANSDUCER ELEMENTS

1
 INTRODUCTION

• ‘Transducer’ elements convert the input

physical variable to usable form.

• In most cases, the output is in the form of an

electrical signal.

2
• The main advantages of getting an
electrical signal as output are the
following:-
– Inertia and friction effects are absent,
unlike in transducers with mechanical
outputs.
– Amplification can be obtained with
relative ease.
– Indication or recording, especially at a
distance, is greatly facilitated.
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 TYPES OF TRANDUCERS

ANALOG DIGITAL

ELECTRO OPTO FREQUENCY DIGITAL

MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL GENERATING ENCODER

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 ANALOG TRANSDUCERS

ELECTRO-MECHANICAL

1. POTENTIOMETRIC RESISTANCE 2. INDUCTANCE

3. CAPACITIVE 4. PIEZO-ELECTRIC

5. RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGE 6. IONIZATION

7. MECHANO - ELECTRONIC

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 ANALOG TRANSDUCERS

OPTO-ELECTRICAL

PHOTO - EMISSIVE

PHOTO - CONDUCTIVE

PHOTO - VOLTAIC

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DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS

DIGITAL

1. FREQUENCY GENERATING

2. DIGITAL ENCODER

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 ELECTRO-MECHANICAL TYPES OF
ANALOG TRANSDUCERS
• In such transducers, an electrical output is
produced due to an input of mechanical
displacement or strain.

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• The mechanical displacement or strain input in
turn may be produced by a primary sensor due
to the input physical variable which may be
pressure, flow, temperature etc.

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SELECTION OF ‘MOTION TRANSDUCERS’

The governing factors are as follows:-

1. Magnitude of motion
2. Type of input-output relation
3. Static and dynamic characteristics
4. Attachment or proximity type
5. Self-generating or external power source
type
6. Type of associated circuit

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POTENTIOMETRIC RESISTANCE TYPE
TRANSDUCER

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 INDUCTIVE TYPE TRANSDUCERS

– Here, the magnetic characteristics of an electric circuit

change due to the motion of the object.
– They can be classified as:-
• Self-generating types
1. Electro-dynamic
2. Electro-magnetic
3. Eddy circuit type
• Non self-generating types
1. Attachment type
2. Air gap type
3. LVDT
4. Magneto- strictive
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SELF GENERATING TYPE TRANSDUCERS

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1. Electro-dynamic transducer

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• A coil wound on a hollow cylinder of non-magnetic
material moves in the annular space of a fixed magnet.
• The voltage generated in the coil is proportional to the
rate of change of flux and hence the velocity of the
moving object.
• The coil cylinder has to be attached to the moving object
and thus this is a contact or attachment type transducer.
• for measuring rotary motion. The coil moves in the
annular space between a magnet and a soft iron core,
generating a voltage in the coil.

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2. Electro-magnetic transducer

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• Electromagnetic transducer, in which a
voltage is induced in the coil when the
magnetic flux about it is varied due to the
motion of the object, which has to be for a
ferromagnetic material.
• This is a proximity type velocity transducer
and is linear only for small motions, as the
flux intensity changes due to the change in
air gap.

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3. Eddy current transducer

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• Eddy-current-type transducer, A non-ferrous plate moves
in a direction perpendicular to the lines of flux of a
magnet.
• Eddy currents are generated in the plate. These are
proportional to the velocity of the plate.
• These eddy currents set up a magnetic field in a
direction opposing the magnetic field that creates them.
• The output voltage eo of the coil, shown in Fig., is
proportional to the rate of change of eddy current or the
acceleration of the plate.
• Since the gap remains constant, the transducer has
linear characteristics.

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NON-SELF GENERATING TYPE
TRANSDUCERS

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1. Variable Inductance transducers

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• An inductance transducer of attachment type shown.
• The core, made of high permeability steel, is attached to the
moving object.
• The motion changes the length of the core inserted in the
coil and thus the inductance of the coil gets changed due to
the change of reluctance of the magnetic flux path.
• When the core moves up and down, the inductance of one
half increases while that of the other half decreases.
• The two inductances L1 and L2 from the adjacent arms of a
Wheatstone bridge, as in Fig. (b).
• The bridge output is modulated as shown in Fig. (c).
• The output is supplied to a phase-sensitive demodulator
which eliminates the carrier frequency and gives an output
corresponding to the motion frequency,
• The value of the output voltage being proportional to the
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displacement.
2. Variable Inductance transducers for rotary
motion

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• Figure shows a variable inductance
transducer for measuring angular
displacement or torsional motion.
• One half of the core is made of a magnetic
material while the other half of non-
magnetic material.
• The inductances of the two halves of the
coil depend upon the amount of magnetic
material in their flux paths.

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3. Proximity type inductance transducers

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• In the variable inductance transducer,
shown in Fig., a small air gap in the
magnetic flux path of an electromagnet is
varied.
• The inductance of one coil increases while
that of the other decreases.
• The output is proportional to the
displacement of the object.

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4. LVDT

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• In a linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) type of transducer,
a soft iron core provides the magnetic coupling between a primary
coil and two secondary coils, connected in series opposition.
• When the core is central and both secondaries are identical, the
voltages across them are equal in magnitude.
• However, the output is zero as both the secondaries are in series
opposition.
• As the core moves up or down, the induced voltage of one
secondary coil increases while that of the other decreases.
• The output voltage, which is modulated, is the difference of the two,
since secondaries are in opposition.
• The output is proportional to the displacement of the iron core.
• The device is very sensitive and is linear over a wide range of
motion.
• Figure b, shows a rotary type of transducer, based on the above
principle.

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5. Magneto – strictive transducers

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• Magnetostrictive type of transducer is based on the
principle that the magnetic permeability of a
ferromagnetic material, like Ni, changes when the
material is subjected to mechanical stress.
• The magnetic permeability of Ni increases when the
material is subjected to compression and decreases due
to tension.
• Thus, the inductance of the coil would change, due to
compression or tension of the probe.
• The magnitude and frequency of the exciting current
determines the coil inductance and a change in the
same can be measured.
• Such transducers can be used for measurement of force,
motion, etc.

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 CAPACITIVE TYPE TRANSDUCERS

• This is a displacement sensitive transducer.

• Due to motion, there is a change in the
capacitance between two plates.

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• This is a displacement-sensitive transducer. Due to
motion, there is a change in the capacitance between
two plates.
• Suitable circuitry is used to generate a voltage,
corresponding to the capacitance change.
• The capacitance C between two plates is given by

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• Capacitance C between plates A and B
may change due to the change of gap as
shown in Figure 1,
• or due to the change in area as shown in
Fig. 2, as a result of motion of member A.
• Figure 3 shows to top view of an area-
change type of capacitive transducer,
which can be used for measuring
rotational motion.

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• Figure shows an associated circuit for capacitive
transducers, using an ac carrier frequency oscillator, with
the transducer forming one arm of a Wheatstone bridge.
• A change in the capacitance, causes modulation of the
oscillator carrier frequency.

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 PIEZO – ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER

• This operates on the principle that when a

crystalline material like quartz or barium
titanate is distorted, an electric charge is
produced.

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 RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGES

• If a conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance will

change, because of change in its length, area and resistivity.
• The resistance R of a conductor of cross-sectional area
A, length L, made of a material of resistivity ρ is

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• For metallic strain gauges, the first two terms viz. (1 + 2v ) are
higher than the third term while for semi-conductor strain gauges,
the third term due to change in resistivity due to strain is much
higher compared to (1 + 2v).
• The change in resistivity due to strain is called Piezo-resistivity.
• The value of F for Cu–Ni alloy gauge is 2 to 3 while that for semi-
conductor is 100 to 200.
• In the latter case, the value of F is positive for silicon doped with
small amounts of p type materials while it is negative for silicon
doped with N type materials.
• The negative value implies decrease is resistivity with tensile strain.

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• In practice, the conductors used are in the
form of thin wires or foils. Strain gauge
transducers are of two types:
1. Unbonded strain gauge, and
2. Bonded strain gauge.

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• Un-bonded strain gauge

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• In an unbonded strain gauge, a resistance wire is stretched between
two frames, one being the moving frame and the other, the fixed
one.
• Typical dimensions of the wire are: 25 mm length and 25 μm
diameter.
• An input motion as shown in Fig. would stretch wires 1 and 3 and
reduce tensions in wires 2 and 4.
• Motion in the opposite direction does the reverse.
• The wires are connected in a Wheatstone bridge arrangement as
shown in Fig (b).
• With this type of transducer one can measure very small motions, of
the order 50 μm and very small forces.
• These transducers may be used to measure force, pressure,
acceleration, etc.

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• Types of strain gauges

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• Bonded strain gauge

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• Transducers, using bonded resistance gauges are widely used for
measurement of several physical variables like strain, force, torque,
pressure, vibrations, etc.
• These gauges may be of metallic or semiconductor materials, and are
in the form of a wire gauge (about 25 μm diameter) or thin metal foil or
small rods (in the case of semiconductor gauges).
• These gauges having paper or some other material backing, are
cemented or bonded to the surface, whose strain is to be measured.
• Once bonded, the gauges undergo the same strain as that in the
member surface.
• Gauges made of copper –nickel alloys have a gauge factor of 2–3 while
semiconductor gauges have gauge factors of 100–200.

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 IONIZATION TRANSDUCERS

• This works on the principle of development of

voltage across two electrodes placed in an
ionized gas, the magnitude of which depends
on the electrode spacing and state of balance,
which can change due to the motion to be
measured.

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• The transducer consists of a glass tube containing gas
under reduced pressure.
• A dc voltage is developed across the internal electrodes
A, when the tube is subjected to an electric field due to
external electrodes B, connected to a radio frequency
(RF) voltage source.
• The gas in the tube gets ionised and the dc voltage
produced depends on the electrode spacing, being zero
at null position.
• the motion xi of the tube relative to the fixed external
electrodes varies the output voltage.
• The balance between the electrodes may also be
changed as in Fig. by changing either capacitance, due
to the motion xi to be measured. This produces an
output eo.
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MECHANO – ELECTRONIC TRANSDUCER

• It depends upon the principle that the plate

current depends on the spacing between an
anode and a cathode in a diode or a triode.

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• such a transducer, consisting of an evacuated
tube, in which the cathode C is fixed and the
position of the anode A can be changed by the
input motion xi,
• which causes deformation of an elastic
diaphragm producing a change in plate current,
which can be measured.
• This can be used for measuring displacement,
pressure, force, etc.

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57
 OPTO – ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

• These transducers convert a light beam into an

electrical signal.
• By proper interruption of the light signal due to
motion input, the electrical signal produced can
be related to the input.
•There are three types of photoelectric
transducers—photo-emissive, photo-conductive
and photo-voltaic transducers.

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1. Photo – emissive transducer

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• In this type of transducer, light beam strikes a photoemissive cathode,
which releases electrons.
• These are attracted towards the anode producing a current I in the circuit.
• The cathode and anode are enclosed in an enclosure that is either
evacuated or filled with an inert gas.
• Current I is seen to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation, the
sensitivity depending on the wavelength of the radiation as well.
• The cathode is made up of silver that is oxidised and covered with a layer of
an alkali metal like cesium or alternatively of an alkali metal combined with
antimony.
• High gains are possible by using a photo-multiplier as in Fig. 4.58, wherein
the number of electrons is increased.
• The emitted electrons from the cathode C are accelerated by voltage E1
and focussed upon an electrode, the dynode D1, where each incident
electron causes the emission of secondary electrons.
• The electrons from D1 get focussed on D2. Finally, these are attracted by
the anode A, producing current I.
• The number of stages may be more than those indicated in Fig. 4.58.

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2. Photo – conductive transducer

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• A photo-conductive material like lead
sulphide or indium antimonide changes its
resistance due to a change in the intensity
of incident light.
• Thus, in a circuit of the type shown in Fig,
the current in the circuit would change due
to a change in intensity of the incident
light.
• The latter in turn can be changed by the
motion, to be measured.

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3. Photo – voltaic transducer

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• This type of transducer has a sandwich
construction, consisting of a metal base
plate 3, a semiconductor material layer 2
(selenium) and a thin transparent metal
layer 1.
• A voltage output is generated due to
incident light and can be suitably
measured.

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 DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS

•The transducers described so far are analog ones,

i.e. their output varies continuously according to the
input.
•In digital transducers, however, the output is
discrete and may give frequency type output or a
digitally coded output, of binary or some other type:

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The main advantages of digital transducers are-
1. Use of digital computers, for data
manipulation is made easier.
2. Digital signals are easy to transmit without
distortion and external noise.
3. Increased accuracy in pulse count is possible.
4. There are ergonomic advantages in
presenting digital data.

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• Digital transducers range from frequency domain or
frequency generating types of transducers to digital
encoders.
• Alternatively, an instrument may incorporate an analog
transducer and an analog-to-digital (A-D) converter, giving
a digital output.

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FREQUENCY DOMAIN TRANSDUCERS:

•In these transducers, the output is in the form of

pulses or sinusoidal wave forms the frequency
• which is a measure of the magnitude of the
physical variable.
• Frequency can be measured by a frequency or
pulse counter.

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1. Electromagnetic frequency domain
transducer

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• This type of transducer can be used for speed
measurement.
• The device consists of a permanent magnet or a
solenoid.
• On the rotating shaft whose speed is to be measured, a
gear of ferromagnetic material is attached.
• As each gear tooth passes in front of the magnet, the
gap length changes.
• This changes the flux density and a voltage pulse is
induced in the coil.
• Pulse frequency equals speed N times the number of
teeth T.
• The form of the output signal is also shown in Fig. Thus,
pulse frequency is a measure of speed of rotation.

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2. Opto – electrical frequency domain
transducer:

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• Figure shows an opto-electrical frequency domain transducer for the
measurement of speed of rotation of a shaft.
• The shaft has half dark and half white or shining portions.
• Every time the latter portion is in front of the light source, the reflected
light, falling on the photo-electric transducer, gives an electrical pulse
output.
• The frequency of the pulses is thus a measure of the speed of rotation.

• For measurement of linear motion, an arrangement using the opto-

electrical device is shown in Fig.
• This uses a transparent scale with a grating. The moving object is
attached to the transparent scale.
• Light from a source passes through the scale and a slit and then falls
on a photo-electric transducer.
• The slit width is such that a motion equal to the pitch of the grating
produces one complete cycle of light and darkness at the photo-electric
cell.
• Thus, a pulse output is obtained. From the number of output pulses,
the change in motion of the scale and the object attached to it can be72
determined.
3. Vibrating string transducer:

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• This is used to measure the force applied to a metal string, which is kept
vibrating, the frequency of which is dependent on the force applied.
• The natural frequency f of a string of length L and area of cross-section a
is given by

where P is the force applied and r the mass density of the wire
material.
• One end of the string is fixed and the other can be moved relative to it,
due to the force applied.
• An electromagnetic transducer picks up the vibrations; the output of which
after amplification is fed to an electromagnetic vibration generator, which
maintains the string vibration at its natural frequency f. Frequency f gets
changed due to change in magnitude of force P.
• The frequency is measured by a frequency counter and is a measure of
the force applied on the string.
• Initial string vibrations are obtained by an electro-magnetic device that
plucks the wire on application of a pulse. The transducer can be used for
force and displacement measurements.
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BINARY CODES

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DIGITAL ENCODERS:

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• These convert analog motion (rotary or linear) directly to a
digital output form.
• Figure shows a rotary encoder disc which can convert a rotary
analog motion to a natural binary form of output.
• The encoder disc has four bits or tracks and is divided into
conducting and insulating portions.
• Brushes A, B, C and D are stationary, brush E being on the
common energising track, which is a conductor.
• When any of the brushes A, B, C or D is on the conducting
portion, during rotary motion of the disc, the circuit is made
and corresponding indicator a, b, c or d is ON (state 1),
otherwise, it is OFF (state 0).
• The arrangement described above is of contact type as there
is direct contact between the brushes and encoder disc.
• The disadvantages of such a system are: wear of brushes
and disc and friction between the brush and disc.
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• An optical type encoder is shown in Fig. The disc has
transparent and opaque areas, corresponding to the
conducting and non-conducting ones respectively, in the
contacting type encoder disc.
• A light source is used along with slits and photo cells.
• The photo cell, corresponding to a particular track, would
produce an electrical output if the transparent portion is
in front of the slit and light source, giving state ON (or 1)
while no electrical output from a cell would correspond to
OFF (or 0) state.

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