Predicate Logic

Rosen 6th ed., § 1.3-1.4

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 Predicate Logic
• Predicate logic is an extension of
propositional logic that permits concisely
reasoning about whole classes of entities.
E.g., “x>1”, “x+y=10”
• Such statements are neither true or false
when the values of the variables are not
specified.

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 Applications of Predicate Logic
• It is the formal notation for writing perfectly
clear, concise, and unambiguous
mathematical definitions, axioms, and
theorems for any branch of mathematics.
• Supported by some of the more
sophisticated database query engines.
• Basis for automatic theorem provers and
many other Artificial Intelligence systems.

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 Subjects and Predicates
• The proposition
“The dog is sleeping”
has two parts:
° “the dog” denotes the subject - the object or
entity that the sentence is about.
° “is sleeping” denotes the predicate- a property
that the subject can have.

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 Propositional Functions
• A predicate is modeled as a function P(·) from
objects to propositions.
° P(x) = “x is sleeping” (where x is any object).
• The result of applying a predicate P to an object
x=a is the proposition P(a).
° e.g. if P(x) = “x > 1”,
then P(3) is the proposition “3 is greater than 1.”
• Note: The predicate P itself (e.g. P=“is sleeping”)
is not a proposition (not a complete sentence).

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 Propositional Functions
• Predicate logic includes propositional
functions of any number of arguments.
e.g. let P(x,y,z) = “x gave y the grade z”,
x=“Mike”, y=“Mary”, z=“A”,
P(x,y,z) = “Mike gave Mary the grade A.”

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 Universe of Discourse
• The collection of values that a variable x
can take is called x’s universe of discourse.
e.g., let P(x)=“x+1>x”.
we could define the course of universe as
the set of integers.

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 Quantifier Expressions
• Quantifiers allow us to quantify (count) how many
objects in the universe of discourse satisfy a given
predicate:
- “” is the FORLL or universal quantifier.
x P(x) means for all x in the u.d., P holds.

- “” is the XISTS or existential quantifier.

x P(x) means there exists an x in the u.d. (that
is, one or more) such that P(x) is true.
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Universal Quantifier : Example
• Let P(x) be the predicate “x is full.”
• Let the u.d. of x be parking spaces at UNR.
• The universal quantification of P(x),
x P(x), is the proposition:
° “All parking spaces at UNR are full.” or
° “Every parking space at UNR is full.” or
° “For each parking space at UNR, that space is full.”

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 The Universal Quantifier 
• To prove that a statement of the form
x P(x) is false, it suffices to find a
counterexample (i.e., one value of x in the
universe of discourse such that P(x) is false)

° e.g., P(x) is the predicate “x>0”

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Existential Quantifier  Example
• Let P(x) be the predicate “x is full.”
• Let the u.d. of x be parking spaces at UNR.
• The universal quantification of P(x),
x P(x), is the proposition:
° “Some parking space at UNR is full.” or
° “There is a parking space at UNR that is full.” or
° “At least one parking space at UNR is full.”

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 Quantifier Equivalence Laws
• Definitions of quantifiers: If u.d.=a,b,c,…
x P(x)  P(a)  P(b)  P(c)  …
x P(x)  P(a)  P(b)  P(c)  …
• We can prove the following laws:
x P(x)  x P(x)
x P(x)  x P(x)
• Which propositional equivalence laws can
be used to prove this?
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 More Equivalence Laws
• x P(x)  x  P(x)
x P(x)  x  P(x)

• x y P(x,y)  y x P(x,y)
x y P(x,y)  y x P(x,y)

• x (P(x)  Q(x))  (x P(x))  (x Q(x))

x (P(x)  Q(x))  (x P(x))  (x Q(x))
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 Scope of Quantifiers
• The part of a logical expression to which a
quantifier is applied is called the scope of
this quantifier.
e.g., (x P(x))  (y Q(y))
e.g., (x P(x))  (x Q(x))

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 Free and Bound Variables
• An expression like P(x) is said to have a
free variable x (meaning x is undefined).
• A quantifier (either  or ) operates on an
expression having one or more free
variables, and binds one or more of those
variables, to produce an expression having
one or more bound variables.

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 Examples of Binding
• P(x,y) has 2 free variables, x and y.
• x P(x,y) has 1 free variable, and one bound
variable. [which is which?]
• “P(x), where x=3” is another way to bind x.
• An expression with zero free variables is an actual
proposition.
• An expression with one or more free variables is
still only a predicate: x P(x,y)

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 More to Know About Binding
• x x P(x) - x is not a free variable in
x P(x), therefore the x binding isn’t used.
• (x P(x))  Q(x) - The variable x is outside of the
scope of the x quantifier, and is therefore free.
Not a proposition.
• (x P(x))  (x Q(x)) - Legal because there are 2
different x’s!
• Quantifiers bind as loosely as needed:
parenthesize x (P(x)  Q(x) )
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 Nested Quantifiers
Exist within the scope of other quantifiers
• Let the u.d. of x & y be people.
• Let P(x,y)=“x likes y” (a predicate with 2 f.v.’s)
• Then y P(x,y) = “There is someone whom x
likes.” (a predicate with 1 free variable, x)
• Then x (y P(x,y)) = “Everyone has someone
whom they like.”
(A __________ with ___ free variables.)

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 Order of Quantifiers Is Important!!

If P(x,y)=“x relies upon y,” express the

following in unambiguous English:
Everyone has someone to rely on.
x(y P(x,y))=
There’s a poor overworked soul whom
y(x P(x,y))= everyone relies upon (including himself)!
x(y P(x,y))= There’s some needy person who relies
upon everybody (including himself).
y(x P(x,y))=Everyone has someone who relies upon them.
x(y P(x,y))= Everyone relies upon everybody,
(including themselves)!
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 Natural language is ambiguous!
• “Everybody likes somebody.”
° For everybody, there is somebody they like,
• x y Likes(x,y) [Probably more likely.]
° or, there is somebody (a popular person) whom
everyone likes?
• y x Likes(x,y)

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 Notational Conventions
• Consecutive quantifiers of the same type can be
combined: x y z P(x,y,z) 
x,y,z P(x,y,z) or even xyz P(x,y,z)
• Sometimes the universe of discourse is restricted
within the quantification, e.g.,
° x>0 P(x) is shorthand for
“For all x that are greater than zero, P(x).”
° x>0 P(x) is shorthand for
“There is an x greater than zero such that P(x).”

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 Defining New Quantifiers
As per their name, quantifiers can be used to
express that a predicate is true of any given
quantity (number) of objects.
Define !x P(x) to mean “P(x) is true of
exactly one x in the universe of discourse.”
!x P(x)  x (P(x)  y (P(y)  y x))
“There is an x such that P(x), where there is
no y such that P(y) and y is other than x.”
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Some Number Theory Examples
• Let u.d. = the natural numbers 0, 1, 2, …
• “A number x is even, E(x), if and only if it is
equal to 2 times some other number.”
x (E(x)  (y x=2y))
• “A number is prime, P(x), iff it isn’t the
product of two non-unity numbers.”
x (P(x)  (y,z x=yz  y1  z1))

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 Calculus Example
• Precisely defining the concept of a limit
using quantifiers:

lim f ( x)  L 
x a

   0 :   0 : x : 
 
 | x  a |    | f ( x)  L |  
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